Limb proportions in South Africans

331 Pages·2016·10.19 MB·English

Limb proportions in South Africans: secular changes, population
differences and implications for stature estimation

Submitted by:
Jolandie Myburgh

A thesis submitted to the Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health
Sciences, University of Pretoria, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
of
PhD in Anatomy

Pretoria, 2016

Supervisor: Prof M Steyn
Co-supervisor: Prof FJ Rühli
DECLARATION

I, Jolandie Myburgh, declare that this dissertation is my own work. It is being submitted for
the degree of PhD in Anatomy at the University of Pretoria. It has not been submitted before
for any other degree or examination at this or any other Institution.

Sign: ________________________

This ______ Day of ___________________, 2015

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This dissertation would not have been completed without the support and
encouragement of many people. I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof Maryna Steyn, for
making this study a success. You provided unending amounts of knowledge, experience,
support, encouragement, patience, understanding and opportunities (financial, professional
and personal) in order to allow me to undertake this project. Word cannot express how much
I admire and appreciate you. I will be forever grateful for having the best supervisor a student
can ask for when doing a PhD. I would also like to thank my co-supervisors, Prof Frank
Ruhli, for his support during this project. Your level of energy and passion for research truly
inspired me during my visit to Zurich. Many thanks also go to Ergotech and Jan-Ryno Smith,
for allowing me to make use of the SADF anthropometric data. Without your willingness to
share data and invaluable input this study will not have been possible. Many thanks also go
to Dr Kaspar Staub, who assisted me with the statistics and additional data from Europe.
I would also like to thank my colleagues at the Department of Anatomy (UP) for their
assistance and support: Professor Marius Bosman for helping when I was at my lowest;
Natalie Keough for being there during times of procrastination and for providing advice and
suggestions when I needed it, I always felt more optimistic after speaking with you; Claire
Venter, Nannette Briers, Albert van Schoor for being willing and unwilling listeners to the
woes of a PhD student; Desire Brits, Kyra Stull, Mike Kenyhercz, Natalie Uhl and to all other
members of staff for their assistance and encouragement. Liefie Du Plessis, without you I
would never have been able to complete this project. You were always there for me without a
second thought. You made everything seem possible (and on occasions made it possible) for
me to succeed. This project felt like a high mountain that needed to be climbed but luckily
you were always there with safety equipment to get me back on track. I truly appreciate
everything you do for me.
A special thanks to Joyce Jordaan and Judy Kleyn for their assistance with the
statistics of this project. Joyce, thank you for all the hard work and extra hours you put in and
for the patience and interest you showed during my visits to your office.
I would also like to thank the NRF, Navkom and the Department of Anatomy for
supplying the research funding for this project.
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I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and love to my family and friends. You
all supported me during this time and pushed me to keep going. To my sister and brother,
Elisma Niemann and Ivan Myburgh, thank you for supporting me even though you would
rather be discussing accounting and finances.
Lastly to my mother, Charlotte Myburgh, you have never stopped believing in me.
Thank you for always motivating me to be a better person. You have always placed me ahead
of yourself and I always knew that no matter what happens that you love and support me. I
would not have gotten this far in life without you. I love you with all my heart.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... ii
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... x
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... xviii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... xxii
Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 2: Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Allometry and limb proportions ....................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Development of limb proportions ............................................................................. 6
2.2 Evolutionary changes in limb proportions ....................................................................... 8
2.2.1 Limb proportions in bipedal locomotion ................................................................... 9
2.2.2 Limb proportions in thermoregulation .................................................................... 10
2.3 Modern studies on limb proportions .............................................................................. 11
2.3.1 The effect of genetics and climate on stature and limb proportions ........................ 13
2.3.2 The effect of nutrition on stature and limb proportions ........................................... 15
2.3.3 The effect of socio-economic status on stature and limb proportions ..................... 17
2.4 Secular changes in stature and limb proportions ............................................................ 19
2.4.1 Worldwide secular changes in stature and limb proportions ................................... 21
2.4.2 South African secular changes in stature and limb proportions .............................. 25
2.5 Secular trends in relative limb proportions .................................................................... 27
2.6 The implications of secular trends in stature and limb proportions on stature estimation
.............................................................................................................................................. 28
2.7 Secular changes in bone robusticity and width .............................................................. 30
Chapter 3: Materials and Methods ........................................................................................... 32
3.1. Sample ........................................................................................................................... 32
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3.1.1 Anthropometric data ................................................................................................ 32
3.1.1.1. Southern Hemisphere (South African) samples ............................................... 32
3.1.1.2 Northern Hemisphere Samples ......................................................................... 34
3.1.2. Osteometric data ..................................................................................................... 36
3.1.2.1. Southern Hemisphere (South African) samples ............................................... 36
3.1.2.2 Northern Hemisphere Samples ......................................................................... 37
3.2 Methods .......................................................................................................................... 38
3.2.1 Anthropometric data ................................................................................................ 38
3.2.2 Osteometric data ...................................................................................................... 49
3.3 Statistical analysis .......................................................................................................... 56
3.3.1 Statistical tests used for data analysis ...................................................................... 56
3.3.2 Analysis of intra- and inter-observer error .............................................................. 57
3.3.3 Comparisons made during statistical analysis ......................................................... 58
3.3.4 Overall human variation as observed in the South African osteometric data ......... 60
Chapter 4: Ancestry differences and secular trends in anthropometric stature ....................... 61
4.1 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric stature of South African
population groups ................................................................................................................. 61
4.1.1 Ancestry differences and trends in the anthropometric stature of South African
black and white males ....................................................................................................... 61
4.1.2 Ancestry differences and secular changes in the anthropometric stature of South
African black and white females ...................................................................................... 64
4.1.3 Comparison of the differences in secular trends in the anthropometric stature of
South African population groups ...................................................................................... 66
4.2 Differences and secular trends in the anthropometric stature of Southern and Northern
hemisphere population groups ............................................................................................. 67
4.2.1 Differences in stature between South African and North American population
groups ............................................................................................................................... 68
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4.2.1.1 Differences in stature between South African and North American black and
white males ................................................................................................................... 68
4.2.1.2 Differences in the stature between South African and North American black
and white females ......................................................................................................... 70
4.2.2 Differences in the secular trends in stature between South African, Swiss and
Dutch white males ............................................................................................................ 72
Chapter 5: Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric limb proportions of
South African population groups ............................................................................................. 76
5.1 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric limb proportions of
South African black and white males ................................................................................... 76
5.1.1 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric upper limb
proportions of South African black and white males ....................................................... 76
5.1.2 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric lower limb
proportions of South African black and white males ....................................................... 83
5.1.3 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric intermembral index
of South African black and white males ........................................................................... 91
5.1.4 Ancestral differences and secular trends in the anthropometric sitting height ratio of
South African black and white males ............................................................................... 93
5.2 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric limb proportions of
South African black and white females................................................................................ 96
5.2.1 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric upper limb
proportions of South African black and white females .................................................... 96
5.2.2 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric lower limb
proportions of South African black and white females .................................................. 103
5.2.3 Secular changes and ancestry differences in the anthropometric intermembral index
of South African black and white females ...................................................................... 111
5.2.4 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric sitting height ratio of
South African black and white females .......................................................................... 113
5.3 Comparisons of the secular changes in the anthropometric limb proportions of South
African population groups combined ................................................................................. 116
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Chapter 6: Ancestry differences and secular trends in Total Skeletal Height (TSH) ............ 128
6.1 Ancestry differences and secular trends in TSH of South African population groups 128
6.1.1 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the TSH of South African black and
white males ..................................................................................................................... 128
6.1.2 Ancestry differences and secular changes in the TSH of South African black and
white females .................................................................................................................. 131
6.2 Osteometric differences and secular trends in stature (TSH) of Southern and Northern
hemisphere population groups ........................................................................................... 134
6.2.1 Secular changes and differences in the TSH of South African and North American
males ............................................................................................................................... 135
6.2.2 Secular changes and differences in the TSH of South African and North American
females ............................................................................................................................ 137
6.2.3 Sex differences in the TSH of South African and North American groups .......... 139
Chapter 7: Differences and secular trends in the osteometric limb proportions of South
African and North American population groups ................................................................... 140
7.1. Ancestry differences and secular trends in the osteometric limb proportions of South
African population groups .................................................................................................. 140
7.1.1 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the osteometric limb proportions of
South African black and white males ............................................................................. 140
7.1.1.1 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the osteometric upper limb
proportions of South African black and white males .................................................. 140
7.1.1.2 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the osteometric lower limb
proportions of South African black and white males .................................................. 148
7.1.1.3 Secular changes and ancestry differences in the osteometric intermembral
index of South African black and white males ........................................................... 158
7.1.1.4 Secular changes and ancestry differences in the osteometric sitting height ratio
of South African black and white males ..................................................................... 160
7.1.2 Secular trends and ancestry differences in the osteometric limb proportions of
South African black and white females .......................................................................... 163
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7.1.2.1 Secular changes and ancestry differences in the osteometric upper limb
proportions of South African black and white females .............................................. 163
7.1.2.2 Secular changes and ancestry differences in the osteometric lower limb
proportions of South African black and white females .............................................. 171
7.1.2.3 Secular changes and ancestry differences in the osteometric intermembral
index of South African black and white females ........................................................ 181
7.1.2.4 Secular changes and ancestry differences in the osteometric sitting height ratio
of South African black and white females .................................................................. 183
7.1.3 Sex differences in secular changes in the osteometric limb proportions of South
African population groups .............................................................................................. 186
7.2 Differences in the osteometric limb proportions between white South African and
North American population groups .................................................................................... 197
7.2.1 Differences and secular changes in the osteometric arm proportions of white South
African and North American males and females ............................................................ 198
7.2.2 Differences in the osteometric lower limb proportions of white South African and
North American males and females ................................................................................ 203
7.2.3 Differences in the osteometric intermembral index of white South African and
North American males and females ................................................................................ 209
7.2.4 Differences and secular changes in the osteometric sitting height ratio of white
South African and North American males and females ................................................. 210
Chapter 8: Discussion ............................................................................................................ 212
8.1 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric and osteometric stature
of South African population groups ................................................................................... 213
8.2 Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric and osteometric limb
proportions of South African population groups ................................................................ 219
8.2.1 Ancestry differences in limb lengths ..................................................................... 219
8.2.2 Ancestry differences in limb proportions .............................................................. 220
8.2.3 Secular changes in South African limb proportions .............................................. 222
8.2.4 Comparisons of secular trends in limb proportions between South African and
North American population groups ................................................................................ 226
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8.3 The implication of secular changes in stature and limb proportions on stature
estimations in South Africa ................................................................................................ 228
8.4 Limitations of the study and future recommendations ................................................. 230
Chapter 9: Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 232
REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................... 235
Appendix A: Composition of the samples used for anthropometric and osteometric analysis
................................................................................................................................................ 260
Appendix B: Ancestry differences and secular trends in the anthropometric limb lengths of
South African population groups ........................................................................................... 264
Appendix C: Ancestry differences and secular trends in the osteometric limb lengths of South
African population groups ..................................................................................................... 282
Appendix D: Osteometric differences in the limb lengths between white South African and
North American males and females ....................................................................................... 303 

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