Table Of Content·
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ISLAMKUNDLICHE UNTERSUCHUNGEN BAND 105
ISALMKUNDLICHEU NTERSUCHUNGEN BAND 105
herausgegveabne n
KlauSsc hwarz
RachSeilm on
1
LIBYAB ETWEEN
OTTOMANISM AND
NATIONALISM
I
TheO ttomIannv olvienmL einbty a
duritnhgWe a rw itIht a(l1y9 1119 19)
�
· · ·
K LAU S S CHWA RZ VERLAG BERLIN KLAUS SCHWARZ VERLAG BERLIN 1987
ACKNO\Il.EOOMENTS
Thisi sa reivsde vesriono fa Ph.Dt.h esiwsh icwha ss ubmitted
to theH ebreUwn ievrsityi n Jerusalaenmd w ass upreviesd by Pro·f
Amnon Cohen.
I woulld ikdt ot hakn theH ebreUwn ievrsiyt,t heH aryr S.T ruman
ResearcInhs titteu,t heI taliMainn istorfy F oerignA ffiarsa ndt he
TurkisMhi nistorfy C ulteu rforp rovigd imne withg rantdsu irngmy
researcfho r thiss tudyS.p ecial thaarnekd su et o thes taff of
archiveasn d libriaersw heret he materila for thiss tuyd was
researchaendd,e speclilayt heA rcihveo ft heP rimeM initsers' Offiec,
Istanbutlh,e Archeisv of the Ministsr ioef Foregin Affiarsi n
IstanbuRlom,e and Bonn,t he PresidieanltA rcihve,A nakra,t he
MiliartyA rchiveF,r eibgu,r and thPeu bilc RecorOdf fiec, Londno.
Thankasr ea lsod uet oM r.T .C oopermanf ore ditgi anndA .A.T yping&
OfficSee rviceTse,l A-vivf ort het ypi.n gLastb utn otl eas,t my
sinceretshta nktso m y familfyo re ncoruaginmge alontgh ew ay.
Noteon Transliteration
Namesa nd temsr relatintgo the Ottoman administrawteiroen
renderiendt hemod ern Turkisshc ripDtu.e t ot echnicdailfi fcultsi,e
diacritihcasv eb eenom ittedf rom Arabitce rms,e xcepfto r the
BibilographyP.l acen amesa re oftenw ritteanc cordintgo the
accustomeWde sterfno rm.
AIl eR echtveo rbehalten.
?hnea usdruckliGcehnee hmigundge sV erlages
1sets n 1chgte stattdeatsW, e rko dere inzelTneei ldea raus
nachzudrucokdeenr z uv ervielfaltigen.
©Dr.K lauSsc hwarzB,e rli1n9 87
ISBN3 -922968-58-9
Drucka:k u-FotodrGumcbkH ,E ckberts1t9r8,.6 0B0a mberq
Tabloef Con tents
Acknowledgments
Noteo nT ranistleraion
IntroductiLoinb:y ian t heL ateO ttomanP eri.o.d. .................... 1
1. TheS ituant iiont heE mpiroen t heE veo ft he
2. IPtoapluilaIannt.v i.a.os.n.i .oo.nf.L. ...i.b.y..•a•..• ....•........•..•.....•....................•....•.......•..•............ 24
3. Societanyd E conom.y. ......•....•.......•....•....•.............�
4. TheS anusi.y•.a.• •...•.•...•.....•......•......•....•••.........
A. TheH istoroyft heO rde.r.. ................................8
B. ReligioPursi nceisp. •l...•..•....•...•.•.•...•••..•..•..•.1 0
C. Organiza.t.i..o.n. ..........•........•.•......•....•......1 2
D. TheS preaodf t heS anuisy.a .............................1.4 .
E. TheE conomiPco sitioofnt heS anusi..y•a.. .....•..........1 6
F. TheR elatnisob etweetnh eS anusiaynad t heO ttoman
Authiotrie..s. ...........•................................1 7
5. TheO ttomanG overnmeinnLt i by.a.. .............................2 2
A. Administr.a.t.i.•o.n.• : . .•...•......••...•..•........•....2 2
B. Fiannce.s.. ...............................................2 6
C. Developm..e.n.t. .•.•......•..••..••.......•...............2 9
D. EducatiaonndC ultu.r.•e•. ..•..•..••..•.....•...•.........3 0
E. Armya ndS ecuri..t..y. .................................... 32
1. Manpow.e.r.. .••••....••.....•........•....•..........3 3
2. LocaClo nscrtiipo.n. •..•...••.•...•.•.••.•.......· .. .3 4
3. Arms andF ortifiocnas•t. i....•...•.•.•.•••..•.•.•.· ..3 7
4. Nav.y. ....•..•.•.•....•.......•••......•...••.....•..3 8
F. PoliitcalA ctiv.i•t.y.. •.••.•••........•..••.•.....••..•..4 0
1. ParlieanmtarRye presaetnito.•n. •..•.•.•..•.•.•.•....4.1
2. TheI mpliicoantso ft heY ounTgu rkRse voliuotn
on theP oliticLailfe a ndG overnmenitnL iby..a• ...•.4 3
6. EuropeIannt eresitnsL iby.a.. .................................4 4
A. Briitsha ndF rencIhn tere.s•t•.s. .•....•.•.•..•...........4 4
B. ItaliIannet restisn L iby.a.. ............................4.7
1. TheM otiveosft heI taliPaenn etratiinotnoL iby..a. .47
2. PecaefuPle nettriaonE:c onomya ndC ultu.r.e ........49..
3. ItaliPaonl iticStaaln dRse garditnhge
OccupatoifoL ni by..a. .•...•..•..•...•.........•..•.5. 1
4. ItaliIannt eartninoalL obbyifnogr A pprovoafl
itsI nteresatnsdP enetratiinotnoL iby.a.. .........5. 3
5. ItaliAarng umentJuss tifyitnhgeI nvasiaonnd
ConsideraRteigoa�rdiintgsT imnig. ......•...........5 7
6. Warni,n Ugltimatuamn dD eclarant oifoW ar.. ..........5 8
ChapteOrn e:O ttoman PoliitcaSlt andRse garditnhgeW ari nL iby.a.. • 66
1. TheS ituiaotni nt heE mpirDeu rin1g9 -111199. ......•...........6 6
2. TheT urkish-ItWaalr.i. a•n•. ....•...•...•.....•....•....•.....7. 2
A. TheC auseosf the ..W.a••r• ..........••....•............7..2
1. TheG uilotf t heW es.t. .............................1.2
2. TheE rrorosf t heP revioGuosv ernm.e.n..t. ........7..6.
B. TheO bliagtionst ob ecomeI nvolv.•e.d. .•........•......•..8 6
1. TheR eliigousC onnteico.n. .....................86.. ... .
2. TheO tomatn Conencti.o.n•. •....••.•..•.....•........8.8
3. TheA rabI ssu.e. ..••....•..•............•..9.0. ........ 4. TripolniitaanL eadersihintp h eS hadwo of
c. V4.i olTahtneRs ieo osfsi ItnatnecaCretan ipnaoablLi al•w.i.. .t..y.. .•.............•.••...................99...52.. .. . 5. tMhielO iattromatynR eI-norvngoiealzmvaieton.n.t... .........................·... .·· ··. ·· ········.·· ·22\2· ·29 ·
3. TheI nter-WPaerr iodT:h eO fficiSatla nadn dt he 6. PoweSrt rugegsli nt heT ripolitna Lneiaadreshi.p. .2•3.
Positioofnt heE mpirien L iby.a. ........•......•...98. ....•..... D. Concluns. i.o•.•...•.•.•..•.••.•.•.......·••.· ······•····�· 8�
4. cBAW.o.. r lTOOWdhtta ettRr omaomaIe nn:a TAO chiftefditA i toolcoLn lt ii iRhabaeelynpI. w acrt.i eeat. slthGeia• enaPt.rnrinma. oo int.nyae.L ns.i.dttb.. s.hy... e.a.W... •a•...r.i.. •.•n•..L. .i•.•.b...•.y..•.a.... ..1119..2.80•040. 6.. ......•....... .. 2. CBA.y. r eTT1nhh.aeeTI.i Tunc.hrtae•keS ir.a-•s-rn.I.hW uPt.a.s.eaa.ir..l iyii•nW.odat .a n.hr... e .L.... .e.•..a....d...e...r...s.•..oh....fi....t p......h ·•.e.... R ....· e..·. •b. ..·.· e·. i·..l .···o.l ··. . n.· ·.•.·· .· ·. ..· ····.·2·22. 444 . O06··6 • · ·· ·
ChapteTrw o: OttomaInn volvemiennL ti yba. ............11.1. ........... 23.. SMaendui-saOittiomaEtonfn f oRreotlsfaF t oir.o.en.is.gE. •nl. e.m.t.e.sn.. .•....•..•..••............22.5� ..1. §
1. TheB ringingo-fiM ne na ndE quipm.en.t. ...•..••...••...1.1.1. .... 4. Sanusir-iBtisRhe lati•on•s. ..•.•...........•.....2...
A. TheT urkish-ItaWlair.a .n• .•....•••......•.•1.1•1• .•.•..•... c. WorlWda rI . ....•...................•..•...............2 5 .9.
1. TheE gyptiRaonu t.e. .....•.......•.........13.1 ........ 1. Causeosf a ndt heP reparast ifoonrt he
2. TheT unisiRaonu t.e. ...•.•.....•....•.••...1•61 ........ Invaosnio f Egyp.t. .........•.....·..·..· ..·52.·9 .· . ...
B. TheI nter-WPaerr i:o dDissociatainodRn e formati.o.n. .1.91 .. 2. TheI nvasioofnE gypatn dt heF allo f
21.. TThheeBD repianrgtiounofrgfM e t e hn,e OE tqtuomainpsmf earnnomtd L iMboy..nae•. y•.. ••......11•.921.. 0. .. .. 3. AThhemaR dia sleo-f SaI hrdi.rfi. as.l -..S.•ua.s.ni.. ..·.. ..·•. .·. ..·· .. ·..· ·..·•· •·. . ·...·· 22.. .76 · 88·..· ·.··
3. Pan-IasmlicAc tivi•t•y• ..••.•....••.....••.•1.22. •...•. D. TheC ontributoifoA nh mada l-Srhaifa nd
C. WorlWda r .I.. .............................1.2.5. ........... Idriasl -Sanutsoit heS truggalgea intshte I tailan.s. .2•91.
1. Te�kilaMta-his u•sa. ...•••..••...•.........1.25• ....... 3. Conclusi:o Tnh eR essitancMeo vemeinntT ripolniitaaa nd
2. TheB ringinogf-Mi enn, Equipmeanntd Mo.n.e..y .....1 .82 Cyrena.ic.a. ......•..••..•.••••..•.••....•.•.......•.......2..94 .
2. TheO ttoman-LibyCaoonp erati.o.n. •.••.••••...••.....•.1.33. ......
A. TheT urkish-ItaWlair•a .n. .....•....•..•......•.•1..43 . ..... ChapteFro urD:a iyl Lifei nt heR ebe'l Csam.p ....•......••.•.....2.9.§
1. Tripolit.a.n..i..a. ................................1.43 1. Admintirsati•o•n. .•...•..••..••...••.. •••••. ··. •· .•• •.• •. ·•· · 2. 6
2. Cyrena.ic.a. .•..•.....•........•.•....•..1. .43•. ....... A. Revenu..es... ............... .......... ·. .·.· . .·. ..· ·. · ·3§ ·5 ·
B. TheI nter-War .Pe•r•i.•od• •......•.....•....••...1. .05.• .••. 1 .E xternSaolu rc.es. ....•.•..·.. .· · •· ·· • ·· • ·•·· · ·0·· ·5 ··
C. WorlWda rI .. .................................1..55. ........ 2. InternSaolu rc.e.s.. .......·.· .··. .· . .·.· ·.· .··.·. .. 0 7
1. TheM issni oofS ulaymaanl -BarutnoiC yrena.ic.a• 1.55. . B. Expendiets.u r•....'. "..'. ....•.•.·•.·· ···•···•· ·· · ·· 3·10 · · · · ·
2. TheM issni oofN urit oC yrena.ic.a. .................1 85 c. Conmu nicaiton.s• .••••.•••••....•.....•.•.....••..•....•.3.1 3
3. TheM iiltarOyr ganizna tiaontdh eI nvasion D. HealtShe rvic.e•s• .•..••·•·•·.·.•·.•·•·· ········•····3··,5· ·
ofE gyp.t. ..••..•..................•..•...1..6. 1. ...... E. EducatiaonndC ultu.re.. .......·.· ···.·.·.·".··.··.. · .· 3 ·1 9
4. TheE gyptiCaonnu ter-Att..a.c.k .....................1 46 2. Econom.y .•••.........••.•••.·. ·.• .·•. ·· · ·· ·· •· · ·· ·• · ·3· ·21 · · ·· · · ·
5. TheR e-orgiaznatiionnC yrenaiacnadt he 3. Religi•o.n. ....••...••...•••••·•·•·•· ·•·············•·····3··27··
Beginnionfgt sh eC onnectiownist hT ripolit.a.n..i. 1a7 6 4. Conclus•i.on. .......•..•...•.•.•.•...••........•.•.•.· . •·.· 3.··3 1
6. TheT ranistino oft heO ttomanst oT ripolit.a..n.i..a1 6 9
7. TheM issni oofi shaPka jat oT ripolit.an•i.a. ..1.47 .... Conclus.i.o..n.. ...................................................3 33
8. TheM issioonf P rincOes manF uadt o
Tripolit.an.i.a.. ...................................1 76 Footnot.es. .•..•.•..••.••.•.•••••.•.•.•...•·•. • ..•. ·•• ·• ··•• · ·•3· 3 ·4 · ·
9. TheO ttoman Departufrreom Libyaat t he Bibloigrap.hy• •....•.....•..............•..•...·.·.·.··.··.3 8 2·.·.·.·.
3. ConclusE•in.odon. f .t h.e.W a.r.• ..•...................•.........•.•.•......•...•......•.............11.8..807. ......... Inde•x.• •..•••••.•.••••••.•••..••.••••.•.••••.••••••••••.••••••••••3 95
ChapteTrh reeT:h eE mergenocfet heR esistaMnocvee meintnL iyba. .. 185
1. Tripolit.an.i.a. .............................•.........1.8...8. . .
A. TheT urki-sIhtaliWaanr. . ................................ 188
1. LocaVlo luntee•ri.n.g. ..•.•.....•.........18.9. ........
2. TheL ocaLle aders.h.ip. ................•.......1 .49 ....
B. TheI nter-WPaerr i.od ....•......................1...89.. . ..•
1. TripolitaAnuitaonn om.y. ......•...............1..89 ....
c. WorlWda rI .. ..................................2...1 ..9. ....
1. TheR enewaolf t heR ebelnl. i.o.....................2.1 9
2. TheO rganizatoifot nh eR ebe.ls... .................. 225
3. SanusIin volvemiennT tr ipolit.an.i.a. .....•..2..2.7. . .
INTRODUCTIONL:I DYIAN Ti lE LATE OTIOMAN PERIOD
1. The Siutationi n t�hone the Eovfe t heI taliIannav sion
1
ofL ibya
Libyfao rmepda rto ft heO ttoman Empirei nt hep erio1d55 11-911.
The Ottomana dministrattihoenr ew as weak becausoef Libya's
remotenefsrsom thei mpreialc apitaIls,t anb,u alndi tsr elatively
minorm iltiarya nd economiicm protanceO.n lys enioorf ficaalnsd
comma nderasn dl ittlmaen powewre res ent thferrome t hec entroef t he
Empiraen d,f rom thev eryb eginn,i tnhger egimbea seid tselofn l ocal
elements.t hIeyn e ars1 71813-51,t heg overnmenitn L ibyaw asi nt he
hands ao lfo cadly nast-yt heQ aramanlFir.om thet imeo ft her eturn
of theO ttmoana rmya nda dmiinstratitoon L ibyai n 1835 up to the
Italiainn vasiionn Octo1be91r1 ,t heO ttoman authiotriesso ughtto
.
strengthteine s wtihtehh earotf theE mpirea nd troa isLei bytao t he
leveolf m orea dvancreedg ions.
Int hep eriobde forteh eI taliainn vasioofn L ibya, Otthteoma n
Empire underwent piomlpiotritcacanhlta ngeasn d experienced internal
ande xternuaplh eavalOns2 .3 J uly1 098, a revolutlieodnb yt heY oung
Turkst ook plaTchee.r evolutioonb'jse ctiwveerse t her eturtno the
Empireof a cosntituntailo-parliamenrteagri,my e the grantinogf
politiclailb ertiteos i tsc itzien,s and ther ecognitioofn e qual
statuosf thev ariourse liguiso ande thnigcr oupsT.h er evolution
aimed to endt hec entraliaznedda utoctriacr egimoef SultaAnb dUl
HamiIdI ( 8176-199)0O.n c omingt op oewr,t heS ultahna df ulfillheids
promisteo g ranat cosntituotni andp arlmieant.Ho ewver, inF ebruary
1878, thec osntitutiwoanss uspendaendd p arlaimentd issolvoend t he
pretexotft hew arw ith Rusisnit ah eB alkanWsh.e nt hew are nedd, the
cosntitiuotnal-pamrelnitaarrye gimwea sn otr estor,e adndA bduHla mid
IIr ulebdy m eanos fa governmeanntda dvisers.
-2 - -3 -
As a resulotf then ationaalw akeinngi n theE mpirew,h ich Europoer E gyptI.n e xilaen du ndergroutnhde,s cei rclpelsa nnetdh e
startaemdo ntgh eC hristiiannG sr eecaen d tBhael kanAsbd,U lH amiId I returonf t hep arilamentarreyg imea,n ds ome evend emandetdh ed eposal
trietdo u nitteh eM oslemrse sidiinng t heE mpireH.e a lsos oughtto of AbdUlH amidI I.T hee xileisn Europwee rema inlyi ntellectuals,
strnegthetnh ep ositioofnt heE mpiraemo ngt hosMeo slemsw how eren ot someo ft hemn on-Moslems,a dwvhooc atleidb eraanld s eculparri nciples
underh isr uleb y meanso f fosterian gp anI-slmaic ideologHyi.s andc allefdo ra decentralgiozveedr nmeTnhte. undergwriotuihnnd the
propagandicsatlsl eodn theM oslewmo rldt os upportth eO tomtans in Empir�e2 inliyn cludmeedmb erso f thea rmya ndt hea dministrataiso n,
theisrt rugglweist hE uropee,mp hasisitnhge r eliguisoa spectosf t he wella s studentwsh o wantead centraliOztetdoma n statea ndw ho
conflicMto.s lemr efugeefsr om Christsitaant esw eref avourably pressefdo rt hea pplicatoifo tnh eidre mandsr athetrh ane mhpasizing
receivaendd M osleOmt toman groupssu spectoefds eparatitsetn dencies theiird eologidcimaeln sions.
(sucha s Arabasn dK urdsr)e ceivsepde cial atteAnbdtUiloH na:m idI I
trietdo e nhanchei sf ololwinag mongt hesger oupbsy b estwoingt iltes The1 980 revolutwiaosnc arrioeudt ma inlyb yt hosfeo rcewsi thin
on their chainedfg sr antitnhge mp osiotniso fh onourh;e e veni nvited theEm piret hatw ereu niteidn the Ciomtmtefeo rU nitayn dP rogress
themt oI stanbutlh,u s turningi nttoeh xeiml easn dh ostages. (CUP);t heyw erea lsokn own as the" YounTgu rks"T.h er evolutdiiodn
not leadt o thei mmediadteep osaolf AbdUl HamidI I,b uti t did
The Hamdiianr egimel ooked upotnh e Europeasnt atesw ith restrihcits p owerasn db roughatbc uta constitutioanrallmi-eapntary
hostiliatnyd suspicioTnh.e ses tate(sma inlyR ussiaE,n glanadn d regimeA.t t heb eginnionfgt heC onstitutipoenrailod ,t heC UPd id not
Francoef)t esnu pported nasttiroungagll weist hitnh eEm pirea nd haa d headt her eigme,b utp referrteod d irectth es tatfer om behintdh e
longh istoroyf i nvolvemienn itt .U ndeArbd UlH amidI I,t heO tomatns scenesT.h ea bcrtiIvsel amicco unrt-erevolounto if 13A pril1 90(9" 31
strnegthenetdh eir twiietsh G ermany becauswea s ai ts ourcoef MartV akas)1,"h oweverb,r oughatbc utt hed eposaolf AbdUl HamiId I
Westerknn ow-hoawn dt echnoloagnydp rovidneod d angeorf political andt hes terngthenoinfgt heY ounTgu rk's direcrtu le.
interventGieornma.n yg rantetdh eEm pirei mportanati dbc th militarily
(int raiinnga nde quiepnmt)a nde coniomcall(yin mobilizifngu ndfso r The policyof the Young Turks was chabrya cttheeriirs ed
commitmentto a stroncge ntraligzoevde rnmeanntd,t heicrh ampioning
industriaanld c ommunicatiponr ojecttsh,e o peninogf marketsa nd
of acceleraOttetdoma niziaotna ndT urkificatoifo tnh es tate while
planni)n.g In thisp eriod,I talyw as not seena s a powert hat
devleopinrge gionapaln -Turkitsihe s.I n spiteo f then aitonalist
threatened Emptihree ,a lthougiht si nteresitns L ibyaw,h ich were
charact(ewirt hs tronOgt toman-Turkiesmhp ahsiso)f thep olicoyf the
knownw,o rried Etmphier e.
YoungT urksa nd tfhaec t thsaomte of them hellidb eraanld secular
Despitteh eI slamicch aractoefr t her egimei,t sc entralization viewst,h ep an-Imsilca tendenciyn Ottoman policy strenagntdh ened
andt hes uppressoifo na nys eparatiasndtl iberal tendeAnbdcUile s, servetdo c ounter-balsaeanpcrea tiasntd n ationaltiesntd encwiietsh in
HamidI Ic ontinuteodi mplemernetf ormsi n thea rmya,d ministtiroan, theE mpiraen df ortiftyh el att'esr tiesw itht heM oslewmo rldT.h e
prevailicnogn ceptiwoans thatt heT urkisehl emenatn da n Islamic
economye,d ucatiotnr,a nsportaatnidof ni nan.c Heisr eformwse ren ot
attachmenptr ovidetdh emo st stablbea sisf ort heO ttomans tate.
onlyi ntendteoda dvancteh eE mpire,bu ta lsot os trnegthehni sd irect
ruleo vert hew holsey stemT.h eS ulta'nsa ctivitiheosw,e vedri,d not Howeveri,n spiteo f thec entriaslatioonf governmenbty theY oung
satisfOyt toman intellectuals wshtor iwveirnfego ra progressive Turkss,e paratist-natimoovneamleinstgtsr ewi ns trengtahn,dn oto nly
amongn on-MosleAms n.a tionaawla keniwnags b yn owu nderwaamoyn gt he
statwei tha constitut-ipoanarillametnaryr egimeT.h eir demafnodrs
ther eturonf the1 876C onstitutwieorneu nceasinOgp.p onenotfs t he Moslemasn d was most evidenitn the riseo f the Arabn ational
movemte.n Among ther easonfso rt hist rendwe ret her elaxatioonn
regimweh o wenroet i mprisoneexdi,l eodr putt od eathe,s capetdo
- 4 - -5 -
politicaaclt iviatnyd s trnegthenceodn tacatmosn gp oiltiacnisa nd int hes outhw,a so fA radbe sce,n btelongteodt heM alikscih oo,la nd
intellectfuraoml vsa irous paorftt sh eEm pireb,o tha titbutabtloe wasn omadic.
ther enelw oafp arilamentlarieyf.
TheY ounTgu rkssu fferseedv ersee tabcksi nt heifro reipgonil cy.
Shortalfyt etrh er evolutiinoO nc tobe1r9 0,8 Austrainan exBeods nia 3. Societya ndE conomoc
andH erzoevgin,aw hichha db eean dministbeyrA eudsr tias inc1e78 8.A t
thes amet im,e Bulgardieac lared indepenGdreenecceae n naenxde d A cleacro rreiloante xistiendL ibybae tweeecno nomiocc cutpiaon
CretTeh.e O ttomang overnmpernott esitenvd a itn ot hes ignatoroif es and patteronf setlteme,n tas wella s social paonildti cal
theT reatoyfB erli(n817 8)w hichha dg uarantteeerdr itoirnitaelg rity assoctiioan. This influtehnerc eeadc tioofn tsh ep opluaitont ot he
oft heE mpir.e Thep osiiotno f theE uropepaonw reso nt hesies su,e s Italioacnc upatainodtn h el att'esra bilyi ttiom posiet sa uthiotry.
shuoldh aves evreda s a warntiong t heO ttomanEm pired urintgh e
Italiiavna sioofnL iyba. Most tohfep opualtino of tThrei politacnoiaasntJ ,eb eGlh ar,b i
andt oa lesser tehxetC eynrte naiccoaasnt w,a sa gricult. uTrhael
main agriculatruergailow na sJ ebeGlh abri, whicwha sd ottewdi th
smallv ilgleasw hospeo pulatwiaosan tt achetdot hel an.dT here was an
2. Pouplation annuaelx chanogfep dr oducbee tweneonr tahn ds ouht:g raifnos rd ate.s
Thisi ntdeerpendewnacsse tron,g anda nyh alitn t heb artetrr adhea d
Theraer en o exacdta tao n thep ouplatioofnL ibyian t hel ate seriouismp licantsi foort hen utroint iof thee ntirpeo uplation.
Ottomanp erdio. lAa rgpea rotf t hep ouplaitonw asn omadicl,i vinign Whereas agricutlhteuo raes ewsia snb aseodn sprinwga te,r most of
regionwshe reef efctivgeo vernmernutl ew as· we;a kno reilablaen d ther emainaignrgi culwtarse dfrayr minPge.r iodosf d routg,hs uch as
comprehenscievnes us was Tthaepk oeupnl.a tioofnt hew esteprrno ivnce thati n tyhee ar1s9 0-810s,e verehliytt hep ouplaitona nd,at s uch
--Tripolit-a-niwaaes s timatteodb eb etwe8e0n,0 000a nd2 mililon; timest,h ep opuliaotnf ounid tselifn n eedo f substanteixatle rnal
6
thaotf t hee asteprrno vin--ceC yrena--icwaa se stimataesdb etween ai;d mapnrye fertroee dm igtrea,ma inly to TaunndiE sgpiyta .
2
19,0000a nd5 0,0000.
Thiss ocio-econsomtircu ctuwraes vulnerabtloe p rolonged
Only a smalolf t phaeLr ityb an uplopaiton wuarsb an-b.a seUdrban miiltarya ctiviatnyd e conomboiycc ottsw hichs everedliys rupted
centrewse res iutatedo n the coasta nd in commerciaaln d seasonaaglr icultaucrtailyv itancda usead c hairne aicotnt hroughout
admiinstratcievnet rienst heh interloann tdh ema in tradreo utetso the conutr.y An attcak on settmlenets,t heiro ccupatioorn
EqutaoriaAlf ri.c Maosto f thep ouplaitonb elongteod t ribest hat destructwiaosnl ,ik elyt ol eadt o thec ollaposfe t hep ouplaito'ns
wer,e int ur,n parto f largegrr oupsTh.e rwee rema ny differences resistanTchei.sp opuliaotnw ass pliitn tonu merosumasl lu nitosf
amongt het ribeisne acphr ovi.n Mcoesotf t heC yrenaitcraienbs w ere vilgleas atndr ibewsi thn o comprenhseivree gionoarl r eliiogus
nomadica ndd iivdebde tweae nn umbeorf l argaes scoiaiton3s .Thet wo leadersLhoiypla.t yt ot ribaals sociioantosr t ot heI badiywyaash not
dominangtr oups inS otuthhw ee re tThoeur aega ndt heT ibb.4u The comrpehensoirva eb sloutef:r agmenitoant wwaisd espraenadd obedience
popaultino ofJ ebeGlh arbiin c entrTarli politwaansmai ian lyB erebr; to thec hiefosf assoicatoinso r theI badiyywaahs n ott oatl.
theyb elongteod theI badMio slesmc hoola ndw erei,n them ai'n Conseqtule,yn therwea sn os upmree leadersthhiapwt a sr ecoigznebdy
settlfeadre mr.s5 Byc onrtastm,o ts oft hep ouplatioenx,c epfto rt hat allo f theT ripolitapnoipauanlt ionA.n cienpte rsoln,at riba,l
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territoarnidae lcn oomicr ivalrpieerss isetveeddn urintgh es turggle statuosft heS anusidyuar inigt se xpansiinot nh en inetee�nentthu ry
againtshte I tailasn.S ucah siutatiohna rmetdh ep opluaitorisa bility
andw heni tl edt hes truggalgea intshte I tailanisn C yreincaa.
tor esisthte I taalnisi;n de,e idtw as furmatnhiepru latbeye dx ternal
7
poewrss,u cahs t heI talsia,On ttomansa ndS anuiss. Italiaannd O ttomans hiprse gulafrrleyq uenttheeLd iybanp orts
of Tripoalnid B engahz,i and tloes sae r etxhtoesnoetf M isautra,
Thep opualtino of Cyrneaicwaa sma inlyn omadic,r aisicnagm els Khoms andS irt.L iby'ast radwei thE uropwea sma inlyc onducwteidt h
ands heeapn dp rovidisnegr vicfeosr c arav.a nTshep opulatwiaosn GreaBtr ita,i inncludtihnegl att'esrc olonoyfM alt.aE xtensive trade
spliitn ton umerousa ndo ftenh ostilter ibaulni t.s Sincet he wasa lso conductIetda lwyFir,ta hn ,c aendt heO ttOITan Aaunsdt rian
Cyreincaanp ouplatiolned a lifeo f wanderirnagt hetrh anl imited EmpiresI.n addittoi Aofnr icgaondo s,t het radwei th Euarlospoe
settmlenet, itw asmo re difficfuolrti tt o bdee featbeyd a dierct includLeidyb anp rodtusc,w hicwhe rema inlye xportteodB ritaihnar:d
attacakt i tsb aseT.h ev ulnaebriliotfy t hisp opluatni olayi ni ts barlefyo rt hep roducnt oifo whiskayn de spartgor assfo rt he
waterre sourcaensdc aravraonu ets:t heir destrourcoc tciuopna tion productoifoh ni gqhu aliptayep r.P arotf t hea griculteuxrpaolwr etn t
could foervceent heC yrenasi ctaonb endt o a foreiganu throity, throutghhe p rimarsyt ageosf i ndustrpiraolsc sein,g butmo st oft he
albeiatta slowepra caen dw itghr eateefrf ortth ani nT ripolit.a nia manufacturgeoodds w eref orl ocaclo nspumtio,n or weree xportteod
Neverthe,l iens sspitoef theg reaftr agmnetatiotnh,e C yrenaican EquatorAifarli ,c aEgypt and Otttomahne Empir.e Thesep roducts
triebs welroey atlo t heS anusoir de.r Consequtelnyd,e spistpel its includheidd e,s cartpes,s pogne, metuatle nsialnsdj eewllerTyh.et wo
lowedro wn,u nitpyr evaialtet dh et opa,n dt himasd et heisru bmission latteprr oductwse rema inlyp roducebdy Jew,s who alsop layeadn
toa nyf oreiagunt hoyr ai tdiffictualstk . impotrantr olei n domestic and foreigtnr a,d ebanikng and
money-lendi10n g.
Libywaa s ainm potrantt ransipoti nit n trans-Sahtarraadne
betweeEnq uatoriAaflr ic(aht e areao f Wadai-BoDraqruf-ura)n d Europeeacno nomipce netratoifo Lni bywaa sl miitebde cauosfe
Euro.p8 e Improtanttr adreo utewsh icchr osseeda sterann dw estern obstaclpelsa ceidn itsw ay by theO ttoman authiotrieasn dt he
Libywae rea lsot heb estr outetso penetraLtieb y.a TheL iyban count'rsyp oor economsitca .t eItalcyo ntrolmolsetd o f thef oreign
pouplatiboenn efitferdom thes ervicreesn derteod t hec aravainns ecomnoica ctiviittysg; o vernmaenndnt u merous public tfhiigsu res saw
tradcee ntraelso ntgh er out,e sasnudp pliceadm elasn dt heidrr ivers. asa wayo fp enetrataindnc go nrtolliLnigb ya pbeya cefmuelna s.T he
Anothiemrop rtansto urcoef i ncomew asp rovidbeydc aravraonb beries Italiacnosn centrtahteeider f forotnsa cquirlianngad n de stablishing
andt hec ollectoifo pnr oteicotnmo ney. Thistr ad,e whiccho ntinued economiecn terpriasnedb sa nk1s1. E uropegaonv ernmentthsa att tmepted
untitlh eb eginniofn gt het wentiectehn tu,r gyradualdleyt eriorated toi nvestiLgiabty'ea sn aturraels ouracnedsa rchaeolwoegryme e tw ith
forp olitiacnadle conomirce aso.n TsheT urki-sIhtaliwaarn, b rought Ottomans uspiciaonndso bjeicotn;s theyf earetdh att hese were the
totaaln dp rolongdeisdr uptitoonL ibyacno asttaolwn sa ndE quatorial firsstt eptso warmdisl airtyc ontr.o l
Afri.c aConseeqnutlyt,h et rasn-Sahartarna dset oppefdo ra long
period. Thed eterioraatnidoe nv entucaels satioofn i nternational Liby•sa backweacrodn om,y itsp rimitdirvyef armianngd g reat
tradhea rmebdo tht heb igm erchanatnsdt hes upplierosfs ervicteos dependeonnci em potrs,e speciadlulryi ng peorfid odrso hugt,w erea ll
thec aravanTsh.et radoen thee asterronu twea sd evelopiendt he impedimednutrailn g periwodasrT .h oefL ibyapnou plaitond idn otl ook
nineteecnetnht ubryy tShaen usiwyhao batsheedi erc onomipocw ero n ont radwei tnhe gihboruinsgt ateassf oreitgrna ,d eyeti tse xitsence
it.Th e uapnsd d owns itnh itsr adhea di mportiamnptil catiofnosrt he wasd ependoenni tt .Du rinWgo rlWda rI ,t hec losuorfeL ibyabonr ders
withTu nis,i aAlgrei,a aneds peciawliltyhE gyp,t waso nem eanosf
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econiomcw arafr,e anidth itt hep opluatoinh ar.d Thel attwears l eft alreawdoyr kesdu ccessfiunl tlhye H ijaza;nd itw asa n imPortant
withoufto o,d arms anda nmunltioann d,a s a restul,i tsa bilittoy
tradjeu nct,i onantdh ereftohree re wgeoodr ec hancfeosr t hes pread
resistth e Itailanc onquewsats severhearlmy.e d ThIet ailans
of theS anusiiynat hew akeo f thec arav,a nisnt hes amew ayt hat
exploitedp etrhmaen enttr adreo uteasn dd ependence upaonnd well Islahma ds preaidn Afri.c a I1n84 3,t hef irsSta nuszia wiyaihn
spring wiant etrdh ees eritno rdetro s ubjugtahteep ouplation. Cyrenaiwcaase staibslhe,d Zawiyaalt- Ba'yd,na eart het omb of Sidi
Raf'i alA-nasr,i oneo ft he Acroanbq ueroefrL siy baa nda followoefr
theP rophMeuth nmaad . Theo rdesrt artteods preaidnC yreinca,aF ezzan
and tnheeih gbuoringr egionIsn.1 846S,i dMiu hanmadr eturnteoMd e cca
IJ,Th e Sanusiya
ande staibslhed12 z awiyaihns t heH ijazT.ha nktso c onatctsma de
durintgh eP iligl!'r.agsee as,o nhis ideas tsopf raeraadw palya ceisn
A. TheH isotryo ft heO rde1r2 Asiaa ndA fri.c aHael soe staibslhead n etwoorfk s peedmye ssengers
andw ask epti nformoende ventisn tMhoes lewmo rlidn g enelr,aa ndi n
TheS anusoir dewra se stabhleidsb y SiMduih mmaad b. 'Ali theS anusnie twoorfkz awiyaihnsp artiacru.Il n1 855h,er eturnteod
alS-anusail -Khattaabli- Hasaalni- Idr,i wshiow asbo rn in1 877i na Cyreinca,a wherea yearl atehre estabhleidsa zawiyaihnJ aguhbb,
vilalgei nt hev iciniotfMy u stagh,n Aelmgiera. In1 82,1 SidMiu hanmad which un1t98i5sl e rveadst hec entrofet heS anus:i tyhael eadeorfs
wento t studiyn F e,z Moroc,c ionM adrasaal-tQ ariaywi,n andj oined theo rdesr att heraen d tcheen trasclh loarliyn stuittionwse re
mosto f theS ufio rde,r wshichw erea ctivteh ree. Het urneddo wn a situattehdee r.A tt histi m,e tZhwea yathr ibfer om the Kufra region
requefsrtom tMhoer occSaunl taMnu laSyu laymatno s ervien h isc orut, int hes outihn itiactoendt acwtist hth eS aunsiy.a Thiwsa rlike tribe
andr eturnteodA lgeriina1 289t ot eacghr anmara ndj urisprudOenn ce. wasr eadtyo s tocpa ravpainll aginagnd g ivteh eS anusioynae -thoifr d
thee veo ft heF rencohc cupatoifo Anl geriina 1 380,S idiMu hanmad itsp roperitny Kufr.a Reliaotns withK intghdeom o f Wadia in
leftth ec onutryH.e w entt oC airaon ds tudiaetdA l-AzhUanri versity, EquatorAifarli caal ssot rength,e tnheadnktsot heS aunsia cquaintance
where hqeu arrelwlietdhma ny 'ula'ma (oMslecml ergwyh)o d enounced witht hel ocaSlu ltaSni.d Miu hanmad diiend1 589i nJ aghbwuhbe rhee
hisv iews. Het henmo vedo n toM eccwah erhee b ecamae p upiolf Sidi wasb uire.d
Ahmadb . Idriasl -aFs,i whos trivteod uniatlelM oslerme lgiious
ordres. In 1387, Sidi Ahdmaide, d anhdi s follodwievrisd beedt ween Thel eadersohfit ph eS ansuiyap assetdo t hef ir-sbtoronf t he
Sharif Muhba.nma' dU thmaanl -rMgihain,w hol atemorv edt oS uadn,a nd foudne,r SidMiu hanmada l-Mah(dbi. 1 484.) Unt1i8l8 2t,h reoef t he
theS anuis.T hef olwleorso f thel att,e wrhow erema inlyn omads, orde'rsd ignitaraciteesid n h isn am.e By thent herwee rea lread3y8
callethde mlsvee"sM uhanmadihy",a indicattihnegiy re arnifnogrM oslem zawiyaihnsC yrenaicaS iarntdi, c a1i8n T ripolitaanndFi eaz azn,1 7
unityA.t thist ime, thSea nuseis tablishhiesd f irszta wiyah inE gpyt,1 3i nt he AraPbeinainn saunldao therisnn ortahn dc entral
(religioucsom poun)d nearM ecc.a Quarrels with' lualmao'c laeldt o Afri.c Tahen umbeorf S anusfio llowwearsse stitmaeda sb etwee15n.
SidMiu hammda'sd eparture friomn 1 M38e8cf coarC yreinca.a mililon andm il3l ioBne.s idMeu hanmada l-Mahsdtiood hisb roetrh,
Muhanmada l-Sahrifw,h ow asr esnpsoiblfeo rt hee ducatisoynsatlea mn d
Themo ve to Cyrelncaac an bsee ena s a turning ipno tihnet theo rganiizoanot ft heS anus.i yaI1n8 48, Muhanmada l-Mahrdeij ected
histoorfyt he Sanubseicyaau istes groswttahr ttehdre e.T hisr egion thec alolf t heS udaneMsaehi d tjoo info rceisn a Jiha(doH lyW ar)
hads everiamlop rtanatd vantafgoersS idMiu ahnmad: otheorr derasn d againtshte E gpytianB-riitshf orcebse cauhseer egardheidma sa false
'ulam'a thta mighhta vbeee na blteo h arhmi ss tandinhga rdloyp erated Madhi. In 189,5 thec entroef theS anusimoyvae dt oK ufr,a aona sis
three;t her egni woas mainilnyh abibtyeB de duol,n amongswth om he had and ainm potrantc aravajnu nicot.n Thismo ve incretahseeo dr de'rs
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abilittoyc ontrtohle s outahn dp reacthh er.e Then umbero fz awiyahs
Allathh,e p rophMeuth ammada ndt he'u lmaa'; theQ ur'na andt heS unnah
int heE qautoriAaflr ickainn gdoms grreawp idlays,t hesset atecsa me
alonaer e tbhaes ifso rt heb elie'vselr ifeS.i dMiu hammado ftebna sed
undetrh ei nflueonfct eh eS anus.i yTahet ransfoefrt heS anuscie ntre himseolnf IbnT amyiayh,a ndr ejectTeadq li(db lnid, unquteisoning
tot hes outwha sa resulotfi tsw isht ob en earetro i ts masicne ne imitiaotn aandda ptant),i Iojma' (ocnsensounsa legaqlu estni),o and
ofa ctivist,ai sew ella si ts wisht ok eepo uto ft her eacohf t he Qiyas( ddeuctiobny analo)g.yH is purposteo uwnaist ael lt he
Ottmoana utrhoiteis. Af urthseoru theardnv ancree sultiend another reliioguso rderasn da bolish allo fcf aruisiceotsnb yr eturntiong
shifotf theo redr'sc entrteo Qirui n 1989. Resistatnoc Fer ench thes ourcesH.i s doctcromibnien eosr thodoaxny dS ufi.s Tmhea imo f
penetratfiroonmt heC hadL aker egiowna sd ircetedf rom Qirua nd theS anusiwyaasn otu nitwyi tAh llahb,u tc losenetsots h eP roepht.
fiercbea ttlweesr ef oughbte twetehn eF rencahn dl ocaKli ngdoms and Itw asd ecidtehadt , oirnd etro r eacthh iosb jetcivea, n eede xisted
Sanusfio rsce.M uhmmaad alMa-hdid iesdu ddenilny1 092a ndw asb uried fors tudyt,r ainianngdi ntennt,ib outn ot ecs·t Tahsuyst hed hikr
inK ufr.a
(thec eremonoyf i ncessraenpte titoifow no rdasn df omrulaisn p raise
ofA llaho)ft heS anusiiysan ot eactsitca,n di sn ota ccompnaiebdy
TheS anuslie adersphaisps etdo M uhammada lM-adhi'sn epheSwi,d i musiocr dancinTgh.ed esirteou nitael lo rderasn d bet oc losteo
Ahmada l-aShrif( b.1 837), who heatdheedo rdeurn ti1l 917A.h mad theP rophfeitn desx pressiinot nh ef irsnta meo ft heo rdedru rintgh e
al-aSrhiwfa st hee ldesmte mbeorf t heS anusfia imlyw,h ilteh es ons Hijazipaenr iodT:aArli-qaalhM- uahmmadiyya(hT hMeu hammadOarnd )er.
of MuhammaaldM- ahd(id! riasn dR ida'w)e res tiljlu nio,r isncapable
of leadintgh eo rdeir n difficutlimte s,p oliticaalsl wye lla s Asf orp oiltictahli nkitnhgeS, a nusicyaal lfeodr a nI mamah -- a
miiltarilyFo.l lowian hge avdye feabty theF rencihn la1t9e0 2t,h e supreme Isgloavmeircn bodiyng. Witrhe gartdoD ara l-Ha(rThbe R ealm
Sanusiwsi thdreawn,d theirc entrree turnetdo Kufr.a French ofw ar), theo rdears ketdh eB elievteorq su iat regiownh icwha sn ot
penetiroants trneghtenefdo llowitnhgeA ngle-Frentcrhe atoyf 190,4 undeMro slermul e,a nda lsoc allefdo rJ iahd.T hed emadns, howeevr,
which gave FrZainncde-e Crhtahrdee gi.o n werec onidtionaoln thep olitisciatlu atitohneS: a nusisyoau ghtto
Islamitzheeu nebliveeresbu,t c liamedt hatth ei ndidvuiaslh oulldi ve
Thed angerpso sebdy theE uropepaonw erwhsi chc onfronttheed ina Moslesmo cieitnyo rdetro b ea completMeo lsem.T heS anuiss
Sanusibyrao ugahbto uatn i mprovemiennr te lantsib oetweeinta ndt he rejectweady so fl ifteh acto ntradicttheeQd u r'na andf eareWde stern
::
Ottomana uthroitieasn d enabOltomaetnd penetratoifo Tni best(ini militaproyil,t icaanld c ulturpaolwe .r Int hel ate-1c9etnht urye,y
1910) Baonrdq (uni 1911). foughtth eF rencihn EquatorAifarli ,c abuth adn otu ntile n
iniitated vicoolfnelnitc tTsh.e ir spohfei rnefsl uewnecreec losetdo
foreiegrns;ev ent heT urks did not wknelolw, f etahreemtd h em and
B. ReligioPursi nciples spreaudn foundreumodu rsa boutt hem.
Thep rincisp olfet heS anusiwyear ec onoslidatbeydi tsf ounedr; TheS anusicyaal lefdo ra modest lifest ylaen dd isntcaef rom
thosweh of olwleodh imd ealmati nlyi n spreadihnigs i deasS.i di dailpYle aseurs:a lcohiocdl rinkwser ef orbid,d aesnw eres mokinga nd
Muhammawdr otnei nbeo okst,h reoef w hichha vsep eciiamlp ortafnocre coffee.O n theo thehran d, thed rinkinogf s tronagn ds weett eaw as
anu nderstanodfih nigsd ocrtin.e1 3A sumtmaiono ft hep rincipolfe s encouratgoes dh arptehne s enseCsoq.u etriyn d resasn dh ouisng was
theS anusicyaan b e found in boohki s� alW-asnanf i al'-Amal conedmned.1 4
bila-dHitwha l-Q'unar (TheA wakenionfgt heS leepiyn t heW orshiipn
theH aditahn d·t heQ ur'na). Inh iso pinni,o evMeorsyl emmu sto bey
