Table Of ContentLexicon Development for Speech and Language Processing
Text, Speech and Language Technology
VOLUME 12
Series Editors
Nancy Ide, Vassar College, New York
Jean Veronis, Universite de Provence and CNRS, France
Editorial Board
Harald Baay en, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands
Kenneth W. Church, AT & T Bell Labs, New Jersey, USA
Judith Klavans, Columbia University, New York, USA
David T. Barnard, University ofR egina, Canada
Dan Tufis, Romanian Academy of Sciences, Romania
Joaquim Llisterri, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Spain
Stig Johansson, University of Oslo, Norway
Joseph Mariani, LIMSI-CNRS, France
The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.
Lexicon Development
for Speech and
Language Processing
Edited by
Frank Van Eynde
University of Leuven, Belgium
and
Dafydd Gibbon
University ofB ielefeld, Germany
elsnet
••••••••
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-0-7923-6369-9 ISBN 978-94-010-9458-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-010-9458-0
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved
© 2000 Springer Science+B usiness Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2000
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
CONTENTS
PREFACE
IX
COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY
Dafydd Gibbon
1. Lexicography 1
2. Lexical structure and lexical signs 5
3. Lexical representation 12
4. Steps in practical lexicography 27
5. Summary and prospects 36
References 41
CONSTRAINT-BASED LEXICA
Gosse Bouma, Frank Van Eynde & Dan Flickinger
1. Introduction 43
2. Inheritance and the hierarchical lexicon 48
3. Lexical rules 52
4. Alternatives for lexical rules 57
5. A case study : subject-auxiliary inversion 61
6. Conclusions 70
References 73
PHONOLOGY-BASED LEXICAL KNOWLEDGE
REPRESENTATION
Lynne Cahill, Julie Carson-Bemdsen & Gerald Gazdar
1. Lexical knowledge representation 77
2. Segmental phonology 82
3. Inflectional morphology 88
4. Morphophonology 94
5. Nonsegmental phonology 96
6. Lexica for speech 105
7. Final remarks 110
v
Vl
References 113
INDUCTIVE LEXICA
Walter Daelemans & Gert Durieux
1. Introduction 115
2. Approaches to lexical acquisition 116
3. Machine learning crash course 117
4. Making lexica learn 126
5. Conclusion 135
References 137
RECOGNIZING LEXICAL PATTERNS IN TEXT
Gregory Grefenstette, Anne Schiller & Salah Ait-Mokhtar
1. Introduction 141
2. Abstraction of lexical structures 142
3. Finite-state calculus 143
4. Tokenization 146
5. Morphological analysis 147
6. Part-of-speech tagging 148
7. Finite-state noun phrase mark-up 152
8. Shallow parsing 152
9. Conclusion 162
References 165
SPEECH DATABASES
Christoph Draxler
1. Introduction 169
2. Signal data 170
3. Symbolic data 176
4. Technology 185
5. Sample SDB: SpeechDat 197
6. Summary 201
References 205
Vll
THE USE OF LEXICA IN TEXT-TO-SPEECH SYSTEMS
Silvia Quazza & Henk van den Heuvel
1. Introduction 207
2. Lexicon-based tasks in text-to-speech 207
3. Word classifiers 215
4. Application oriented lexical domains 220
5. Conclusion 229
References 233
THE USE OF LEXICA IN AUTOMATIC SPEECH
RECOGNITION
Martine Adda-Decker & Lori Lamel
1. Introduction 235
2. General overview 235
3. Role of the lexicon in a speech recognizer 238
4. Multilingual aspects 242
5. Word list development 245
6. Pronunciation development 249
7. Lexical modeling for spontaneous speech 259
8. Discussion 263
References 265
MORPHOLOGY IN THE MENTAL LEXICON:
A COMPUTATIONAL MODEL FOR VISUAL
WORD RECOGNITION
R. Harald Baayen, Robert Schreuder & Richard Sproat
1. Introduction 267
2. General architecture 268
3. A computational model 270
4. A simulation study 281
5. Conclusions 286
References 293
AUTHOR INFORMATION 295
PREFACE
This book originates from the Fifth European Summer School on Lan
guage and Speech Communication that was held in the summer of 1997 in
Leuven, Belgium, under the auspices of the European Language and Speech
Network (ELSNET). The central topic of the summer school was "Lexicon
Development for Language and Speech Processing"; the choice of this theme
was motivated by its immediate relevance to current developments in the
human language technologies, and to the centrality of the lexicon in current
theoretical and computational linguistics.
In terms of technological relevance, systems for speech and language pro
cessing need access to increasingly large lexica in order to achieve a reason
able degree of coverage and accuracy. Since the construction and maintenance
of large-scale lexical resources is a complex and costly task, it is of crucial
importance for those who design or build such systems to be aware of the
latest developments in the field.
On the research side, it is equally clear, though perhaps primarily to the
insider, that lexical matters have moved from the fringe to the very core of
theoretical and computational linguistics, and that natural language process
ing is steering away from the development of toy systems with small-size
lexica to the development of systems which have access to large and very
large vocabularies of tens or hundreds of thousands of words. As a matter of
fact, this evolution may - with hindsight - be said to be one of the major
characteristics of NLP and linguistics in the nineties.
It will therefore not come as a surprise that the summer school drew enthu
siastic responses, both from academic and industrial circles. Given the lively
interest for the courses and the general feeling at the summer school that the
contents of the courses should be made available to a wider community, plans
were made to publish a book.
All lecturers were invited to contribute a chapter, and much to our satis
faction we managed to include - after various rounds of reviewing - nine
contributions (out of the ten original courses). The resulting book offers a
state-of-the-art survey of methods and techniques for structuring, acquiring
and maintaining lexical resources for speech and language processing, and
ix
X F. VAN EYNDE AND D. GIBBON
for understanding the underlying principles of human language processing.
In the first chapter Dafydd Gibbon provides a broad survey of the field of
computational lexicography, introducing most of the issues, terms and topics
which are addressed in more detail in the rest of the book. The next two chap
ters focus on the structure and the content of man-made lexica. Gosse Bouma,
Frank Van Eynde and Dan Flickinger concentrate mainly on morphosyntac
tic and syntactic information, whereas Lynne Cahill, Julie Carson-Berndsen
and Gerald Gazdar focus on morphophonological and phonological infor
mation. Both chapters adopt a declarative constraint-based methodology and
pay ample attention to the various ways in which lexical generalizations can
be formalized and exploited to enhance the consistency and to reduce the
redundancy of lexica.
A complementary perspective is offered in the next two chapters, which
present techniques for automatically deriving lexical resources from text cor
pora. Walter Daelemans and Gert Durieux provide a general characteriza
tion of the inductive data-oriented methodology, and Gregory Grefenstette,
Anne Schiller and Salah Ai:t-Mokhtar discuss the use of an important cur
rent paradigm, finite state technology, in the tokenization, lemmatization and
shallow parsing of corpora for automated lexicon acquisition.
The next three chapters focus on the three central areas of lexica for spo
ken language processing applications. Christoph Draxler discusses the orga
nization of speech databases. Silvia Quazza and Henk van den Heuvel focus
on the use of lexica in text-to-speech synthesis systems, and Martine Adda
Decker and Lori Lame! cover the same topic for the particular needs of speech
recognition systems, as used in dictation software and dialogue menu control.
In the last chapter Harald Baayen, Rob Schreuder and Richard Sproat take
a psycholinguistic perspective and address the relation between storage and
computation in the human mental lexicon.
Many people were involved in the preparation of this book and in the
planning of the summer school on which it is based. In chronological order,
we would first like to thank the ELSNET bureau (Steven Krauwer, Yvonne
van Holsteijn and her successor Mariken Broekhoven), the Programme Com
mittee of the School (John Nerbonne and Gerrit Bloothooft) and the local
Organization Committee (Frank Van Eynde and Ineke Schuurman). We also
gratefully acknowledge the financial support from various funding agencies,
incl. ELSNET, ERASMUS, the research network Computational Linguistics
in Flanders, the Flemish and Walloon chapters of the Belgian Fund for Sci-
