Leisure policy in New Zealand and Malaysia: A comparative study of developments in sport and ...

212 Pages·2009·8.82 MB·English

by  Mohd Salleh Aman

LEISURE POLICY IN NEW ZEALAND AND MALAY SIA:
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DEVELOPMENTS IN
SPORT AND PHYSICAL RECREATION
. A thesis
submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
At
Lincoln University
By
Mohd Salleh Aman
Lincoln University
New Zealand
2005
11
Abstract of thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Leisure policy in New Zealand and Malaysia:
A comparative study of developments in sport and physical recreation
by
Mohd Salleh Aman
This comparative study assessed the usefulness of the convergence thesis as a tool for
understanding developments in leisure, recreation and sport in New Zealand and
Malaysia. The study examined the interrelationship between 'global' and 'local' or
'contingent' factors and their impact upon leisure behaviour, leisure policy and leisure
structures. 'Local' factors included institutional arrangements (notably political ones) and
national cultural practices. A social history of New Zealand and Malaysia with particular
reference to leisure, sport and recreation and national cultural practices was provided as a
context for discussion of these issues.
The study utilised a mixture of archival and library research and semi-structured
interview, and was guided by an explicit comparative framework, concentrating on the
development of leisure, sport and recreation in the two countries between 1970 and 2002.
Interviews with 'key players' in both countries captured valuable data in the form of
'insiders' views' on leisure behaviour, policy and structure. These data were analysed
with the relevance of the convergence thesis in mind.
This study shows that contemporary leisure behaviour in New Zealand and Malaysia is
shaped by the media and is highly commercialised, placing a high value on
entertainment, and involves increasingly passive forms of participation. Informal sport
and individualised recreational activities are replacing organised team-based sports in
popularity. Leisure behaviour trends have led governments in both countries to encourage
greater participation in sport and physical activity and to encourage private sector
iii
ventures into leisure-related products, services and infra-structures in the form of private
public partnerships.
In terms ofleisure policy, developments in leisure, recreation and, noticeably, sport, in
Malaysia and New Zealand have been shaped by the wider agendas of the governing
political parties. This is particularly noticeable at central government level. Individual
political leaders in both countries have been influential in setting leisure-related policy.
They had the vision to see that sport in particular might serve wider, national interests
and that investments in sport could help raise the profiles of their countries jn
international markets and among trading organisations and the regulatory bodies that
oversee trading practices.
Malaysian and New Zealand governments seek to make leisure, sport and recreation
policy supportive of other priorities. In Malaysia, the government legitimises its control
over the policies which affect people's lives by appeals to Islamic principles and the need
to put collective needs of nation building ahead of individual concerns for freedom. In
terms of institutional, political, arrangements, this impacts at both central and local
government levels in Malaysia. New Zealand, following a pluralist, Westminster,
tradition of political representation, experiences regular changes in political management
at central government level and a system of local government whereby local autonomy is
jealously protected. Malaysia has resisted 'the global', by virtue of the nation-building
policies of the Barisan Nasional, which has been in power since 1957. New Zealand's
'resistance' stems in part at least from the autonomy which local government enjoys.
These experiences demonstrate that resistance to 'global' change can take varied forms at
the 'local', contingent, level (Thorns, 1992).
Differences in leisure structures reflect, once again, different agendas stemming from
different political arrangements. The Malaysian government's approach is multi
Ministry, and micro-managed. In New Zealand, a 'hands off' approach via a quasi
autonomous non-government organisation CQuango'), became the favoured means of
iv
structuring central government leisure provision in the 1980s and 1990s. This was with a
view to encouraging stability and consistency in leisure policy and provision in a
pluralistic political system.
Overall, and 'cautiously', this study provided support for the convergence thesis as a way
to explain development in leisure, recreation and sport in New Zealand and Malaysia
over the past 32 years. Although institutional arrangements and national cultural practices
have provided some resistance to convergence processes, changing consumer sentiments
may weaken such resistance in future.
Key Words: Convergence, convergence thesIs, leisure policy, Malaysian leisure policy,
New Zealand leisure policy, comparative analysis, contingency, globalisation, leisure
consumption, resistance, Elite Sport, Sport-for-AlI, leisure behaviour, leisure structures,
sport and recreation.
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Acknowledgement
In undertaking this research, I have been greatly assisted by many individuals and
agencies whose contributions in one way or another have brought about the
materialisation of this thesis. I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to my first
supervisor Bob Gidlow for his professional guidance and constructive criticism. I am also
grateful to my co-supervisor Professor Grant Cushman for his ideas and positive
contributions. The close supervision and helpful comments from both of them have
markedly improved the content of my thesis. I acknowledge my debt to my"Malaysian
supervisor Associate Professor Dr. Mohamed Nor Che' Noh, who passed away before the
completion of this thesis.
The research would not have been possible without the financial assistance of University
of Malaya for granting overseas study leave. I am also grateful to Lincoln University's
postgraduate fund. I would like to acknowledge the generosity and kindness of National
Sport Council and Ministry of Youth and Sport, Malaysia. I wish to thank these
individuals: Tan Sri Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad, Rosli Hussein, Datuk A. Hamid, Khoo Kay
Kim, M. Jegathesan, Wan Sabri, Sallehuddin, Naza, Rashidi, Munir, Faithal, Jun,
Douglas Brougton, Geoff Ormandy, Harvey Perkins, Claire Simpson and Geraldine.
I wish to offer special thanks to all the informants all over New Zealand and Malaysia
who took time off their busy schedules to participate and made this study possible. They
have provided rich and colourful meaning to the better understanding of the subjective
leisure experience. It was a pleasure getting to know them and I am grateful for their
friendship. Finally, I wish to express my appreciation to my family for their
thoughtfulness and encouragement throughout my studies. To my mother, and my late
father, thank you for everything. To my children, Adam, Anis, Ummi, Ali and Aman, I
owe you love and support. To my wife Zaleha, whose assistance has been invaluable, and
whose patience and understanding have sustained my efforts, I dedicate this thesis.
Above all, I thank you God for giving me Your Blessings to complete my study.
VI
Table of Contents
Abstract ii
Acknowledgement v
Table of contents vi
List pf figures xi
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Thesis objectives 3
1.2 The convergence thesis 4
1.2.1 The nature of convergence 4
1.2.2· Convergence thesis: the strengths and weaknesses 6
1.2.3 Convergence via globalisation 8
1.2.4 Globalisation in leisure and sport 11
1.3 Government involvement in leisure, sport and recreation 15
1.3.1 Government support of economic development 15
1.3.2 Institutional arrangements 16
1.4 Culture 16
1.4.1 National cultural practice 17
1.5 Global consciousness versus contingent experience 18
1.6 The concepts of leisure, sport and recreation 20
1.6.1 Leisure 20
1.6.2 Sport 21
1.6.3 Recreation 22
1.7 Organisation of the thesis 24
1.8 Summary 24
Chapter 2: Research framework and methodology 25
2.0. Introduction 25
2.1 Research time frame 25
2.2 Information sources regarding leisure, sport and recreation in
New Zealand and Malaysia 26
2.3 Methods 27
2.3.1 Library and archival research 27
2.3.2 Interviewing 'key players' in the development ofleisure
policy 28
2.4 Comparative framework 31
2.4.1 Rationale 31
2.4.2 Cross-national research 31
2.5 Research framework 33
2.6 Summary 34
Vll
Chapter 3: Cultural histories of New Zealand and Malaysia 35
3.0 Introduction 35
3.1 New Zealand: cultural history 35
3.1.1 The place 35
3.1.2 History 37
3.1.3 The people 39
3.1.4 Government 40
3.1.5 Economy 42
3.2 The history of leisure, sport and recreation in New Zealand 44
3.3 Malaysia: cultural history 48
3.3.1 The place 48
3.3.2 History 49
3.3.3 The people 49
3.3.4 Government 54
3.3.5 Economy 56
3.4 The history of leisure, sport and recreation in Malaysia 57
3.5 A comparison of different aspects of cultures in New Zealand
and Malaysia 60
3.5.1 The individual and the collective 60
3.5.2 Beliefs systems 63
3.5.3 Symbols and rituals 66
3.5.4 Heroes 67
3.6 Summary 70
Chapter 4: Leisure behaviour in New Zealand and Malaysia 72
4.0 Introduction 72
4.1 Contemporary leisure patterns 72
4.2 The economic contribution of leisure behaviour 78
4.3 The emphasis on sport and physical activity in leisure policy 80
4.4 Summary 83
Chapter 5: The evolution of central government involvement in
leisure, sport and recreation policy in New Zealand
and Malaysia 84
5.0 Introduction 84
5.1 New Zealand: the evolution of leisure policy 84
5.1.1 From unstructured pastimes to structured recreational
activities 84
5.1.2 The Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937 85
5.1.3 The Recreation and Sport Act 1973 86
5.1.4 Recreation and Sport Act 1987 88'
5.1.5 The Sport, Fitness and Leisure Amendment Act 1992 91
5.1.6 Recreation and Sport Agency Bill, 2001 92
V 111
5.1.7 New Zealand central government involvement in the
development of leisure policy: A summary 94
5.2 Malaysia: the evolution of leisure policy 94
5.2.1 From unstructured traditional pastimes to structured
sport and recreation 94
5.2.2 Sport administration 97
5.2.3 The Olympic Council of Malaysia 99
5.2.4 National Sports Council ofM alaysia Act 1971 100
5.2.5 The National Sports Policy of Malaysia, 1988 102
5.2.6 Sport Development Act 1997 105
5.2.7 Malaysia's central government involvement in the
development of leisure policy: A summary 107
5.3 Comparative analysis of central government's leisure policy -in
New Zealand and Malaysia 108
5.3.1 Similarities 108
5.3.2 Differences 110
5.4 Summary 112
Chapter 6: The evolution of local government involvement in
leisure, sport and recreation policy in New Zealand
and Malaysia 113
6.0 Introduction 113
6.1 New Zealand's local government involvement in leisure policy 113
6.1.1 Administrative framework 114
6.1.2 Role 114
6.1.3 Philosophy 116
6.1.4 Policy 118
6.1.5 Operations 119
6.1.6 Summary 120
6.2 Malaysian local government involvement in leisure policy 120
6.2.1 Administrative framework 120
6.2.2 Policy 121
6.2.3 Role 122
6.2.4 Summary 123
6.3 Comparative analysis of local government leisure policy in the
two countries 124
6.4 Overall comparison of New Zealand and Malaysia in relation to
the convergence thesis 126
6.4.1 Central government 126
6.4.2 Local government 127
6.5 Summary 128
IX
Chapter 7: Leisure policy formulation and implementation in
New Zealand and Malaysia: views from the 'inside' 130
7.0 Introduction 130
7.1 Who determines leisure policy 130
7.1.1 New Zealand 130
7.1.2 Malaysia 132
7.2 Community participation in policy formulation 134
7.2.1 New Zealand 134
7.2.2 Malaysia 135
7.3 Role of local government 135
7.3.1 New Zealand 135
7.3.2 Malaysia 136
7.4 Emphasis on sport 137
7.4.1 New Zealand 137
7.4.2 Malaysia 139
7.5 Summary 140
Chapter 8: Leisure, sport and recreation structures in New
Zealand and Malaysia 142
8.0 Introduction 142
8.1 New Zealand: leisure, sport and recreation structures 142
8.1.1 The structure of the Hillary Commission during the 1990s 143
8.1.2 Active New Zealand, 2001 146
8.2 Malaysia: leisure, sport and recreation structures 148
8.2.1 National Sport Council of Malaysia 148
8.2.2 The Ministry of Youth and Sport 149
8.2.3 Leisure 'delivery' in Malaysia 151
8.3 Summary 153
Chapter 9: Conclusion 154
9.0 Introduction 154
9.1 The relevance of convergence thesis 154
9.2 Leisure behaviour 158
9.2.1 A leisure paradox 163
9.3 Leisure policy 163
9.4 Leisure structures 166
9.5 The significance of national cultural values 167
9.6 The significance of the study 168
9.7 Limitations of this thesis 169
9.8 Summary 170
x
Bibliography 173
Appendix I Semi-structured interview questions 189
Appendix II Consent letter and Consent Form 193
Appendix III Participants' details 195