Table Of ContentRelated Titles
New Aspects of Meat Quality
(978-0-08-100593-4)
Poultry Quality Evaluation
(978-0-08-100763-1)
Advances in Animal Welfare
(978-0-08-101215-4)
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science,
Technology and Nutrition
Lawrie’s Meat Science
Eighth Edition
Edited by
Fidel Toldra´
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List of Contributors
Dong U.Ahn,IowaStateUniversity,Ames,IA,UnitedStates
Donato Andueza, INRA, UMR1213 Herbivores, Saint-Gene`s-Champanelle, France;
Clermont Universite´, VetAgro Sup, UMR1213 Herbivores, Clermont-Ferrand,
France
LopaBasu,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington,KY,UnitedStates
Marie-Christine Champomier-Verge`s, UMR1319, MICALIS, INRA, Universite´
Paris-Saclay,Jouy-en-Josas,France
MarilenaE. Dasenaki,UniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece
EricM.England,The OhioStateUniversity,Columbus,OH,UnitedStates
CameronFaustman,UniversityofConnecticut,Storrs,CT,UnitedStates
Xi Feng,IowaStateUniversity,Ames,IA,UnitedStates
Mo´nicaFlores,InstitutodeAgroqu´ımicayTecnolog´ıadeAlimentos(CSIC),Valencia,
Spain
LucaFontanesi,UniversityofBologna,Bologna,Italy
Kerri B. Gehring, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States;
International HACCPAlliance,CollegeStation, TX,UnitedStates
David E. Gerrard, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,
VA,UnitedStates
Jean-Franc¸ois Hocquette, INRA, UMR1213 Herbivores, Saint-Gene`s-Champanelle,
France; Clermont Universite´, VetAgro Sup, UMR1213 Herbivores, Clermont-
Ferrand, France
David L. Hopkins, Centre for Red Meat and Sheep Development, Cowra, NSW,
Australia
JoeP.Kerry,UniversityCollegeCork,CorkCity,Ireland
AlexandraLianou,AgriculturalUniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece
Clemente Lo´pez-Bote,UniversidadComplutensedeMadrid,Madrid,Spain
Sulaiman K. Matarneh, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg,VA,UnitedStates
Mark McGee,Teagasc,Grange,Dunsany,Co. Meath,Ireland
AubreyF.Mendonc¸a,IowaStateUniversity,Ames,IA,UnitedStates
RhondaK. Miller,TexasA&MUniversity,CollegeStation, TX,UnitedStates
xiii
xiv ListofContributors
AidanP.Moloney,Teagasc,Grange,Dunsany,Co.Meath,Ireland
Benoˆıt-Pierre Mourot, INRA, UMR1213 Herbivores, Saint-Gene`s-Champanelle,
France; Clermont Universite´, VetAgro Sup, UMR1213 Herbivores, Clermont-
Ferrand,France;Valorex,Combourtille´,France
JacquesMourot,INRA,UMR1348PEGASE,St-Gilles,France;AgrocampusOuest,
UMR1348PEGASE,Rennes,France
George-JohnE.Nychas,AgriculturalUniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece
HerbertW.Ockerman,OhioStateUniversity,Columbus,OH,UnitedStates
EfstathiosZ.Panagou,AgriculturalUniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece
Peter P. Purslow, National University of Central Buenos Aires Province, Tandil,
Argentina
JeffreyW.Savell,TexasA&M University,CollegeStation,TX,UnitedStates
TracyL. Scheffler,UniversityofFlorida,Gainesville, FL,UnitedStates
SurendranathP.Suman,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington,KY,UnitedStates
NikolaosS.Thomaidis,UniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece
FidelToldra´,InstitutodeAgroqu´ımicayTecnolog´ıadeAlimentos(CSIC),Valencia,
Spain
AndreyA.Tyuftin,UniversityCollegeCork,CorkCity,Ireland
RobynD.Warner,MelbourneUniversity,Parkville,VIC,Australia
JeffreyD.Wood,UniversityofBristol,Bristol,UnitedKingdom
YoulingL.Xiong,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington,KY,UnitedStates
MoniqueZagorec,UMR1014SECALIM,INRA,Oniris,Nantes,France
Preface
When I was contacted by the publisher to prepare the eighth edition, my first
thoughtswerefocusedontheenormousresponsibilitythatIwasassuming.Infact,
and after talking withmany colleagues, Ithink thatmostofthemeatscientists
worldwidehavelearnedaboutmeatwithanyoftheearliereditionsofLawrie’s
MeatSciencebook.Thisisthetypeofbookthatmeatscientistsmusthaveonhand
in their personal library. I personally learned a lot about meat science from
the previous editions of this book. This is why I am so grateful to Professor
RalstonLawrieforhisinitiativeinwritingthisnicebookandpublishingitsfirst
editionin1966andthefollowingeditionsandalsotoProfessorDaveLedwardfor
theworkdoneinupdatingandexpandingtherecenteditionsofthebook.
The main goal of the book is to provide the reader with a comprehensive
resource,coveringthewidefieldofmeatscience.Thismeansfromtheproduction
of animals, the structure of the muscle, its conversion into meat, the different
technologies used for preservation and storage and the eating and nutritional
qualityandsafetyofmeatthroughtheprocessingindustryanddistributionuntil
reachingtheconsumer.
The book includes leading-edge technologies (i.e., nanotechnology, novel
preservation technologies) and techniques (i.e., proteomics, genomics, metab-
olomics) in chapters not only related with meat quality, nutritional value, and
meatsafetybutalsoinotherrelevantissuessuchastraceabilityandauthenticity,
whichhaveastrongdemandfromallsectorsinvolvedin“farmtofork”andhave
beenthefocusofsomerecentscandalsnotonlyintheEuropeanUnionbutalso
inotherareasoftheworld.
After50yearssincethebookwasfirstpublished,thiseightheditionisfacing
newtimesandhasgotconsiderablechangesinrelationtothepreviouseditions.
Themostrelevantchangethatyouwillimmediatelynoticeistheformatofthe
bookthat is now an editedbookwith multiauthoredchapters.Thismeans that
eachchapterisauthoredbywell-knownscientistshavinganexcellentexpertise
on the respective topic. These authors have contributed to get the chapters
completely rewritten and updated. Another relevant change is the breakdown
intomorespecific chapters.Some chapters remain with similar titles although
substantiallyrevisedandupdatedincontent,suchastheintroduction,thefactors
affectingthegrowthanddevelopmentofmeatanimals,thestructureandgrowth
ofmuscle,thechemicalandbiochemicalconstitutionofmuscle,theconversion
ofmuscletomeat,meatmicrobiologyandspoilage,andmeatcompositionand
nutritional value.Other chaptershave beencompletelychanged like thesetof
xv
xvi Preface
chapters on storage and preservation of meat, which are now split into four
chapters:thermalandnonthermaltechnologies,processingandpackaging,and
storage.Theeatingqualityofmeatissplitinto six chapters:color, tenderness,
flavor, water-holding capacity and juiciness, sensory evaluation, and latest
technologiesforassessmentofquality.Therearetwonewchaptersundermeat
safety: foodborne pathogens and other biological issues, and residues and
contaminants.Finally,thebookalsoincludesnewchaptersontopicsofcurrent
relevant interests such as authenticity and traceability, edible by-products, and
meatandhealth.
I sincerely hope that readers will find this book of interest and providing
usefulinformation.Iwishtothankallthecontributorsfortheirhardworkand
good job done with the delivered chapters and making this book possible.
I also wish to thank the production team at Woodhead Publishing, especially
Mrs. Karen Miller, the Editorial Production Manager, Lisa Jones, the Senior
Project Manager, and Mr. Robert Sykes, the Acquisitions Editor, for their
dedicationduringthepreparationandelaborationofthechaptersandduringthe
publicationofthisbook.
FidelToldra´
Editor
Chapter 1
Introduction
Jeffrey W. Savell
TexasA&MUniversity,CollegeStation,TX,UnitedStates
Meat science is a discipline that requires a complete understanding of the
complexities of antemortem and postmortem factors that impact the final
product for the consumer. Subsequent chapters in this book will delve into
these factors more deeply, but an overview of some of the background and
currentissuesrelatedtomeatproductionisanimportantstartingpointforthis
journey.
1.1 MEAT AND MUSCLE
Thebasicdefinitionofmeatisthefleshofanimalsusedforfood.Forthemost
part and for most societies, meatcomes from domesticated livestock with the
primaryspeciesbeingcattle,hogs,andsheep.Althoughskeletalmusclemakes
up the greatest proportion of the products produced and consumed, various
organsandotheroffalitemsareimportant foodcomponentsformanynations
and often contribute greatly to the export markets for those countries that
produce more than what can be consumed domestically.
One example of a technical definition of meat can be found at U.S.
Department of Agriculture (2016a):
Meat. (1) The part of the muscle of any cattle, sheep, swine, orgoats whichis
skeletalorwhichisfoundinthetongue,diaphragm,heart,oresophagus,withor
withouttheaccompanyingandoverlyingfat,andtheportionsofbone(inbone-in
product such as T-bone or porterhouse steak), skin, sinew, nerve, and blood
vesselswhichnormallyaccompanythemuscletissueandthatarenotseparated
fromitintheprocessofdressing.Asappliedtoproductsofequines,thistermhas
a comparablemeaning.
1.Meatdoesnotincludethemusclefoundinthelips,snout,orears.
2. Meat may not include significant portions of bone, including hard bone and
related components, such as bone marrow, or any amount of brain, trigeminal
ganglia,spinal cord,ordorsalrootganglia.
Lawrie’sMeatScience.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100694-8.00001-7
Copyright©2017ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. 1
2 Lawrie’sMeatScience
Regulatory authorities within governments must define what constitutes
“meat” for its citizens as a way to ensure proper labeling and prevention of
adulteration, and it is expected that this definition will vary from country to
country. This definition from the United States has been updated since the
occurrenceofbovinespongiformencephalopathyinthemid-1980sasreflected
by the reference to the absence of items now considered as “specified risk
materials” (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2016b).
1.2 MEAT FROM OTHER ANIMALS
Throughout the world, there are many other animals used for primary or
secondary sources of meat for consumption. The buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is
an important source of draft power, milk, meat, and hides in many Asian
countries, with the greatest numbers present in India, China, Pakistan, and
Nepal (Nanda and Nakao, 2003). Desert camels (Camelus dromedarius), in
additiontotheirhistoricuseasatransporter,theirdroughttolerance,andtheir
ability to adapt to harsh arid and semiarid zones, provide food for parts of
Africa(Kurtu,2004;YousifandBabiker,1989)andtheMiddleEast(Elgasim
and Alkanhal, 1992; Kadim et al., 2006).
Thegoat(Capraaegagrushircus)isagreatcontributortothedevelopment
of rural zones and people (Dubeuf et al., 2004) and historically has been a
great source of meat, milk, fiber, and skin. Dubeuf et al. (2004) stated that
goats are found on all continents, with the greatest numbers being located in
Asia (especially China and India), Africa (especially Nigeria and Ethiopia),
Europe (especially Greece and Spain), and the Americas (especially Mexico
and Brazil). For species such as goats, sometimes meat production is sec-
ondarytothatofmilkorfiber,whichoftendiminishesthevalueofmeatinthe
marketplace.
The horse (Equus ferus caballus) is used as a source of human food in
some cultures, with the majority of horse meat production/importation
occurringinAsiaandWesternEurope(Gill,2005).Gill(2005)alsostatedthat
the Western European countries with the greatest amounts of horse meat
produced, exported, and/or imported were Italy, Belgium, France, and the
Netherlands.Gade(1976)statedthattheacceptanceofhorsemeatinFranceas
afooditemforhumanswouldbeoneofthefewdocumentedcasesofachange
in attitude from aversion to that of acceptance and was probably driven by
food-shortage crises of the past.
For many years, the United States slaughtered horses with the majority of
the more valued cuts destined for Western Europe and the less valued cuts
remaining for use in pet food manufacturing or use in zoos. In 2005, the first
successful attempt by the US Congress to find a way to stop horse slaughter
was through an act that prevented federal monies from being used to pay the
salaries or expenses of inspectors. Eventhough this bill expired several years
later, the US budget passed in early 2014 reinstated the ban on the use of
Introduction Chapter j1 3
federal monies for inspection of horse meat. Nonetheless, there are EU-
approved horse slaughter facilities in Canada and Mexico that handle much
of the volume of North American horses that are destined for slaughter.
Horse meat production and consumption were brought to international
headlineswhenin2013,inpartsofIrelandandtheUnitedKingdom,processed
beef products were found to have been contaminated/adulterated with horse
meat (Abbots and Coles, 2013). Regan et al. (2015), in a survey of the
aftermath of this incident, found three factors that were related to how
consumers assigned responsibility and blame for the adulteration: (1) the
deliberately deceitful practices of the food industry, (2) the complexity of the
foodsupplychain,and(3)thedemandfrom(other)consumersforcheapfood.
Mislabeling/misbranding products, especially related to substituting lower
priced for higher priced meats, can and do have serious regulatory conse-
quences, but may most importantly, erode consumer confidence and trust for
the meat industry.
Thedomesticrabbit(Oryctolaguscuniculus)meatconsumptioniscentered
intheMediterraneancountriesandisimpactedbyhistorical,economical,and
social evolution (Dalle Zotte, 2002). Rabbit carcasses may be some of the
smallest (from 1.0 to 1.8kg) used for meat production, but because of their
leanness (approximately 3%e6% dissectible fat) and overall quality, they are
very desirable for the marketplace (Dalle Zotte, 2002). Dalle Zotte and
Szendro (2011) observed that rabbit meat could be used as a functional food
(providing multiple health benefits including nutrition, well-being, and
reduction of disease) because of howdiet could be used to influence the fatty
acid composition and vitamin content of the meat.
Exoticorgamemeatisoneforwhichtherearecertaincountriesthathave
abundant wildlife where animals can be hunted in the traditional form or
where animals can be farmed using the latest reproductive technologies,
advanced nutrition schemes, and sanitary slaughter and cutting operations to
provide meat through commerce. Hoffman and Cawthorn (2013) compared
several species of wildlife to show the proximate composition of meat (prin-
cipally from the M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum). As onewould expect
basedontheoverallleannessoftheseanimals,HoffmanandCawthorn(2013)
found that meat from the ungulates, African species, including the springbok
(Antidorcas marsupialis), blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi), kudu
(Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and impala (Aepyceros melampus), and ungulates,
cervidae, including red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama), roe
deer (Capreolus capreolus), and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) had protein
contentsfrom19.3%to23.6%andfatcontentsfrom1.7%to4.6%basedona
raw weight basis. Hoffman and Wiklund (2006) stated that game meat and
venisonfromsouthernAfricaareincreasinglybeingexportedintoEuropeand
the United States, and that how they are produced (wild, free range, or
intensiveproduction),harvested,thenutritionalquality,andtraceabilityareall
factors that play a role into the consumer acceptance of this meat.
