Table Of ContentLanguage Universals, Markedness Theory,
and Natural Phonetic Processes
Trends in Linguistics
Studies and Monographs 25
Editor
Werner Winter
Mouton de Gruyter
Berlin · New York · Amsterdam
Language Uni Versals,
Markedness Theory,
and Natural Phonetic Processes
by
Robert K. Herbert
Mouton de Gruyter
Berlin · New York · Amsterdam
Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague) is a Division of Walter de
Gruyter & Co., Berlin.
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CIP-Kurztitelaufnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek
Herbert, Robert Κ.:
Language universals, markedness theory and
natural phonetic processes / by Robert K.
Herbert. - Berlin ; New York ; Amsterdam
Mouton de Gruyter, 1986.
(Trends in linguistics Studies and
monographs ; 25)
ISBN 3-11-010973-5
NE: Trends in linguistics / Studies and monographs
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Herbert, Robert K., 1951-
Language universals, markedness theory, and natural
phonetic processes.
(Trends in linguistics. Studies and monographs ; 25)
Bibliography: p.
1. Consonants. 2. Nasality (Phonetics) 3. Universals
(Linguistics) 4. Markedness (Linguistics). I. Title.
II. Series.
P235. H47 1986 414 85-31927
ISBN 0-89925-123-4
Printed on acid free paper.
© Copyright 1986 by Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin. All rights reserved, includ-
ing those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form - by photoprint, microfilm or any other means - nor
transmitted nor translated into a machine language without written permission
from Mouton de Gruyter, a Division of Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin.
Printing: Gerike GmbH, Berlin. - Binding: Dieter Mikolai, Berlin
Printed in Germany.
Contents
Notes on symbols ix
1 Introduction and orientation 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background and theoretical orientation 1
1.2 Sources of data 3
1.3 Arrangement of the chapters 3
2 Definition and phonological status of prenasalization 6
2.0 Introduction 6
2.1 The problem of definition 7
2.1.1 Phonetic definition 7
2.1.2 Phonological definition 10
2.1.2.1 Strategy of definition 11
2.1.2.2 Phonological prenasalization 14
2.2 Phonological markedness 23
2.2.1 Theoretical background 23
2.2.2 Clicks 26
2.2.3 The markedness of prenasalized consonants 31
2.2.3.1 Phonological implications 31
2.2.3.2 Frequency of distribution 31
2.2.3.3 Allophonic variation 36
2.2.3.4 Neutralization and diachronic developments 38
2.2.3.5 Child language and distributional limitations 44
2.2.3.6 Phonological and grammatical markedness 45
2.3 Summary 50
2.4 Notes 51
3 Prenasalized consonants: Units or clusters? 54
3.0 Introduction 54
3.1 Strategy of determination 54
3.2 General considerations 61
3.3 Syllable structure considerations 67
3.3.1 Elicited syllabification 67
3.3.2 Secondary evidence for syllabification 70
vi Contents
3.3.2.1 Language games 70
3.3.2.2 Rhythmic considerations 71
3.3.3 Syllable structure arguments 73
3.4 Motivation for a feature analysis 79
3.5 Summary 90
3.6 Notes 92
4 Formal representation of prenasalized consonants 94
4.0 Introduction 94
4.1 Formal representation 94
4.1.1 Distinctive feature proposals 94
4.1.2 Complex symbols 98
4.2 Feature analyses: Theoretical considerations 100
4.2.1 Orthogonality 100
4.2.2 Question of subclass 102
4.2.3 Conclusion 112
4.3 Phonetic vector specifications 113
4.3.1 Consonant incompatibility 113
4.3.2 Diachronic developments 117
4.4 Summary 120
4.5 Notes 120
5 Phonetic evidence for a cluster analyses 122
5.0 Introduction 122
5.1 Vowel quality 123
5.2 Vowel nasality 124
5.2.1 General background 124
5.2.2 Prenasalized consonants and vowel nasality 126
5.2.3 Conclusion 134
5.3 Vowel quantity 134
5.4 Syllabicity alternations 139
5.5 Summary 141
5.6 Notes 141
6 A derivational model for nasal-oral unification 143
6.0 Introduction 143
6.1 Theoretical background 143
6.1.1 Definition 143
6.1.2 Unification in Delaware 144
6.1.3 Oates'bi-level approach 146
6.1.4 Nasals as syllable codas 149
6.1.5 Myers'derivational model 154
Contents vii
6.2 Relationship of phonetic processes and unification 159
6.2.1 Homorganicity and unification 159
6.2.2 Secondary phonetic processes and unification 162
6.3 Derivational model 168
6.3.1 Sketch of the model 168
6.3.2 Explanatory value of the model 173
6.4 Initial prenasalization and unification:
An alternative model 177
6.5 Summary 186
6.6 Notes 187
7 Prenasalized consonants: Processes of origin 189
7.0 Introduction 189
7.1 Nasal abutment 189
7.1.1 Morphological processes 190
7.1.2 Phonological processes 193
7.1.3 Metathesis 195
7.1.4 Conclusion 196
7.2 Environmental shielding processes 196
7.2.1 Theoretical considerations 196
7.2.2 Shielding of oral vowels 199
7.2.3 Shielding of nasal vowels 201
7.2.4 Complex shielding series 204
7.2.5 Excursus on formalism and explanation 205
7.3 Shielding within clusters 214
7.3.1 Prenasalization of nasal consonants 215
7.3.2 Prenasalization of oral consonants 218
7.3.3 Conclusion 219
7.4 Spurious, spontaneous, and intrusive nasalization 220
7.4.1 Sinhalese 220
7.4.2 Apache 222
7.4.3 West Atlantic, Celtic, Nilotic, Austronesian 223
7.4.4 Kikongo 226
7.5 Some problematic cases 228
7.5.1 Narragansett 228
7.5.2 Breton 229
7.5.3 Bantu 229
7.5.4 Conclusion 230
7.6 Summary 231
7.7 Notes 232
viii Contents
8 Phonetic processes in derivation 235
8.0 Introduction 235
8.1 Processes affecting oral consonants 235
8.1.1 Post-nasal voicing 236
8.1.2 Post-nasal hardening 237
8.1.3 De-implosion 239
8.1.4 Ejectives 240
8.1.5 Clicks 241
8.1.6 Aspirates and aspiration 242
8.1.6.1 Loss of aspiration 243
8.1.6.2 Development of aspiration 243
8.1.7 Nasal +/h/ 246
8.1.8 Conclusion 248
8.2 Processes affecting nasal consonants 250
8.2.1 Nasal assimilation 250
8.2.2 Nasal devoicing 251
8.2.3 Nasal deletion 252
8.2.4 Nasal absorption 253
8.2.5 Conclusion 254
8.3 Summary 255
8.4 Gemination of consonants and prenasalization 256
8.5 Notes 261
9 Implications and conclusions 263
9.0 Introduction 263
9.1 Explaining markedness 263
9.1.1 Class markedness 263
9.1.2 Markedness within the class 266
9.2 Universals in reconstruction 267
9.2.1 Reconstructing process 267
9.2.2 Reconstructing state 271
9.2.3 Conclusion 272
9.3 Implications and directions for future research 272
9.3.1 Complex sound types 272
9.3.2 Universals of secondary nasality 275
9.4 Summary 276
9.5 Notes 276
References 278
Notes on Symbols
In most cases, it has been found preferable to retain the transcriptions used
by various authors, except when they are idiosyncratic or ambiguous. In
certain cases, this has been necessitated by the author's not giving precise
phonetic descriptions and the fact that the symbols used are ambiguous. It
has not been possible to verify these forms with native language consultants.
The distinction between nasal-oral surface clusters (NC) and unit pre-
nasalized consonants (NC, Nc, NC) is indicated only when it crucially affects
the argument at hand or is not clear from the text. Similarly, we follow our
sources in the transcription of prenasalized consonants as NC or Nc; it seems
unlikely that such a distinction could ever be contrastive. V indicates a
nasal (ized) vowel except in Kikuyu and some related languages where Τ and
u are the standard orthographic symbols for [1] and [u], V indicates a 'super
close' vowel, usually cited in the context of Bantu (cf. Guthrie 1967-70).
Note also the following equivalences and conventions:
s /
ζ 3
C t /
I = d3
ngb = mgb = qmgb
nkp = mkp = qmkp
Ν represents a homorganic nasal preconsonantally or a nasal unspecified for
point of articulation. Similarly, C represents any consonant. The other sym-
bols employed are those of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The diacritic
symbols C, C, C, (J? will be used to indicate voiced, voiceless, retroflex, and
syllabic consonants respectively. Other symbols and diacritics will be noted
in the text. Finally, slashes (/ /) will be used to distinguish phonological
or underlying forms from surface phonetic forms, which will be cited within
square brackets ([ ]). Italics will be used for items cited in their orhto-
graphic forms and foreign words cited within the text.
