Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 37

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Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 37

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Language Policy in Ethiopia: History and Current Trends
Getachew Anteneh * Derib Ado**

ABSRACT
Ethiopia, as one of the multilingual and multicultural countries, has faced the critical
problem of development and implementation of language use policy that could satisfy the
needs of various societies in question and contribute to their socioeconomic and socio-
cultural development. The various governments that ruled Ethiopia since the reign of
Emperor Tewodros II followed various language use policies that suit their political
orientation.
The major objective of this paper was to seek answers to the following questions:
a. What type of language policy did Ethiopia have in the past?
b. What is the language policy of the country today?
c. How is Ethiopia implementing its language policy today?
The historical survey of language use policy was made based on the secondary data (i.e.
written documents) from different sources. The study on the implementation of the current
language policy of the country focuses mainly on four regional states, namely Amhara,
Oromiya and SNNP regional states and the Addis Ababa City Administration. Interviews
were conducted with various bodies that are concerned with developing, implementing and
monitoring language use policies, such as the Ethiopian Language Research Center, the
Ministry of Tourism and Culture, the information and education bureaus of three regional
states, namely the Amhara, Oromiya and SNNP regional states to get the necessary data.

The analysis of the data shows that though there had been a change from having no
written policy to a policy that encourages the development and use of all the languages in
the country, the implementation showed a little change in the time from the reign of
Tewodros II up to the end of the Derg. The language policies of Tewodros II, Minilek II,
Hailesellasie I and the Derg regime had been similar on the ground level: they all
implemented a one-language language use policy .The language use policy of the current
government, however, is quite different in its approach and implementation. The
implementation of a multilingual language use policy has served the country both its
blessings and consequences.

__________________________________________________________
* Getachew Anteneh JU Education Faculty Jimma, Ethiopia
** Derib do Education Faculty Jimma Ethiopia
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 38

considered as assets for the speakers.
I. INTRODUCTION Every language is used as a means of
interaction for the community that
1. Background of the study speaks it. Apart from the use of these
languages for communication purposes,
Ethiopia has been labeled possessing a they have the potential to be used in
long history of three thousand years and education, administration and the justice
more. At various times, its governors system of the country.
and rulers had played their roles in
shaping the geographical, cultural, This paper attempts to look the historical
historical, religious etc. -all aspects of development of language policy in
the country. As a result most of the Ethiopia, in other words, it aims at
status quo today is, to a great extent, the assessing the various language policies
legacy of our past history. Our worries that have been practiced in Ethiopia for
and challenges, - all, have something to the past one hundred plus years. It tries
do with the past. to relate the nature of language policies,
their manifestations and position in the
In the course of its long history, Ethiopia practical application of language use,
has treated different social and cultural during different periods in Ethiopia
issues within the boundary. One of the (from the time of Tewodros II up to
primary issues that concern Ethiopia now).
today is the question of language. Being
a multilingual and multicultural country, 2. What is language policy?
Ethiopia shares the problem of language The concept of language policy is
use and language choice for various mainly related to decisions rules,
purposes. There are more than 75 regulations and guidelines about the
languages in Ethiopia that can be status, use, domains and territories of
categorized under different language language and the rights of speakers
families (i.e. Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic, under question"1. Calvet says we shall
Nilotic). These diversified languages are
1 Schiffman 2005
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 39

treat language policy as the conscious participation, and provide
choice made in the domain of access to public services,
relationship between language and social proceedings and documents.3
2
life as a whole. The explanations provided so far clearly
point out that language policy is the
There is also a more specific definition responsibility of the government.
that treats the subject in a better depth. Scholars such as Columas (1994), and
This specific definition explains Calvet (1997) also assert that there is a
language policy as: need for the possession of authority in
the formulation of language policies.
I. What government does
officially through legislation, The other point that is explained by the
court decisions, executive definitions is about the domain of
action or other means to: application of language policies.
a. determine how Language polices are concerned with
languages are used in determining the status of languages that
public contexts implies whether languages should be
b. cultivate language used as national language, language of
skills needed to national wider communication, official language,
priorities, or working language, language of
c. establish the rights instruction, etc. is decided at government
of individuals or groups to level by a policy. Language policies are
learn use and maintain concerned with domains use, and
languages. territories of languages also imply that
II. Government regulation of its which language should be used in
own language including steps education, administration etc, and to
to facilitate clear what extent and where should be
communication, train and resolved by language policies.
recruit personnel, guarantee
due process, foster political

2 Calvet 1997
3 Crawford 2000
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 40

constitutional, administrative and legal
3. Types of language policies guarantees by providing personal and/ or
Language policies differ from place to by specifying the domains of use. By
place and from time to time according to domains of use, it means whether (a)
the political orientation of governments language (s) should be used in court,
and the nature of the society that exists. schools or in the administration, etc.
Some governments have clear and Tolerance policies, on the other hand,
explicit language policies, called overt allow the use of a particular or several
policies, which have written support in languages but there is no such
legal documents, for instance, the encouragement of use and development by
constitution. Others prefer to conceal to providing financial or personnel support.5
their language policy, and as a result, do
not state their language policies in The other distinction between language
written legal documents or others. Such policies is between equalitarian and
policies are referred to as covert restricted policies. Some language
language policies. Covert language policies treat 'even if a very small
policies are also known as de facto, minority' as always totally equals to any
common law or traditional, and usually language and place all languages on
it is the linguistic status quo that is taken equal footings. However, restricted
4
as the de facto or common low. policies as their name imply, are not as
open as equal for all languages.6
Language policies are also classified as
either promotive or tolerance (permissive) On the other hand, Patten (2001),
depending on the support and proposed four models of language
encouragement provided by the policy, based on the usage of language
government in the use and development of (s) in a given community. They are
languages. In the case of promotive a. disestablishment or public,
policies there is a promotion of one or disengagement: the model
several languages by giving some

5 Schiffman 2005
4 Ibid 6 Ibid
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 41

which maintains that there whether it is for education,
should be no official publicly administration, wider communication
recognized language (s). etc. In multilingual nations, however,
b. official multilingualism: in this there exists a problem as which language
model there should be the same to be used for education, administration,
recognition for the various wider communication and so on. Thus,
languages spoken in the the use of language is usually supported
community. by a language policy in those
c. language rationalization: the multilingual nations.
model which privileged public This study looks into the language
language by limiting or denying policies of various governments that
recognition of other languages ruled in Ethiopia since Tewodros II to
in certain spheres of language show how Ethiopia dealt with such a
use. very serious problem and how the
d. language maintenance: the current government is dealing with the
model which aims to make all same problem. Specifically it will
languages equally successful in answer the following questions:
their use. 7
All these different types of language • What type of language policy did
policies, as stated earlier, are the Ethiopia have in the past?
manifestations the government's • What is the language policy of
ideologies in a given country for the the country today?
speech community regarding on the • How is Ethiopia implementing
language (s) use. its language policy today?

4. What is this study about? 5. Delimitation of the study
In monolingual nations, the use of This study is limited to describing or
language does not create problems, as showing the historical development of
there will be no difficulty in choosing language policy in Ethiopia. The study
the language for various purposes, will try to investigate the history of
language use policy in Ethiopia since the

7 Patten 2001 regime of Emperor Tewodros II up to
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 42

now. The discussion of the
implementation of the present language III. Language policy in Ethiopia:
policy of the country will look at the history
case of the Amhara, Oromiya, SNNP
regional states and the Addis Ababa City 3.1 Language policy before the reign
Administration. The rest of the regions, of Haile Sellasie I
namely Afar, Tigray and Somali are not
included in this later discussion due to Despite its long history Ethiopia had no
time constraint to conduct interviews written constitution before Haile
and collect the necessary data from these Sellasie. There are claims that those
regions. governments used the 'Fetha Negest'
(Book of Kings) as a basic reference in
II. Methodology their governance.8 That there was no
This research is a survey that employed constitution or clearly stated language
a qualitative method. The historical policy before Haile Sellasie I though,
survey of language use policy was made does not mean there was no language
based on the secondary data (i.e. written policy at all. The prevailing linguistic
documents) from different sources. The status quo can be taken as the implicit
information on the implementation of 9
language policy. In order to assess the
the current language policy of the
language policies of the then
country was gathered through interview
governments, however, we need to look
with various bodies that are concerned
at the subdivisions of the era.
with developing implementing and

monitoring language use policies,
3.1.1 Language Policy before Haile
namely the Ethiopian Language
Sellaise I
Research Center, the Ministry of Youth,
Before the reign of Emperor Tewodros
Sports, and Culture,the information and
(1855), Ethiopia was under the hands of
education bureaus of the four regional
different regional lords. Assessing the
states, namely the Amhara, Oromiya ,
Addis Ababa administrative State and
8 Cooper 1976a
SNNP regional States.
9 Schiffman 2005
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 43

language policies of these rulers require The next emperor, Yohanes IV, a
a detailed study of the era, and it is Tigrinya speaker himself, did not try to
beyond the scope of this paper. alter the history by adopting Tigrinya for
official purposes. He promoted the same
The reign of Tewodros II was cited as language as Tewodros did in his quest
the beginning of the history of modern for national unification of his empire.
Ethiopia by many people.10 The major Since hefollowed the footsteps of
contribution of Tewodros was that he Tewodros, we can thus, put his
tried to unify Ethiopia under one empire. contribution in similar category with
Though his objective to unity the Tewodros.
country was not successful for various
reasons, he laid the foundation for the The third period, the reign of Minilik,
coming rulers who followed in his foot can also be considered the continuation
steps. Tewodros had a promotive of the second period with relative
language policy that encouraged the use modernization and expansion. In terms
of Amharic. The main and noted of unifying the country it can be said
contribution of Tewodros nevertheless, that Minilik II finished what Tewodros
was his attempt to make Amharic a had started. The promotion of a
literary language. He changed the trend monolingual language policy, namely
of using Geez to write the Royal the promotion of Amharic, continued
11 covering a very wide area. By the time
Chronicles into using Amharic. In his
of Minilik, Amharic reached the
reign, Amharic got the momentum to
premises of local elites and
move one step up from a mere lingua
administrative offices where the
franca to a literary language. The
language had never spoken before-to the
language policy that Tewodros followed
south, east and west part of Ethiopia.
was a covert one as it was not supported

by any legal document like a
With regard to Minilik’s language
constitution.
policy, Cohen notes that it focused

mainly on incorporating local elites.

Amharic then, got the chance to be
10 McNabb 1989
11 Bahru 1991 considered the language of the rulers.
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 44

Every local rulers, as a result had to As Cohen states it, there was a
speak Amharic in addition to other comprehensive and premeditated
religious and cultural adaptations. He language policy which was incorporated
also states that the roles played by the in the bigger policy of what is called
soldiers, the church and northern ‘Ethiopianization ‘12. While the
Ethiopian settlers together with the ‘Ethiopianization’ during Emperor
incorporation of local elites by providing Minilik incorporated local elites the
them with local authority and ‘Ethiopianization’ during Emperor Haile
recognition (even by establishing Sellasie aimed to encompass the general
intermarriage between the families of the 13
population. The major rational behind
royal group and the local elites) helped,
such a move was also explained by the
among other things, the implementation
government’s quest for national
of a covert language policy promoting
unification and ease of communication
one language.
among different people. Cohen

concludes “in pursuance of a policy of
3.1.2 Language policy during the reign
national unification, the government
of Haile Sellasie I
sought to establish a national religion
Haile Sellasie’s government had a
unique history from its predecessors
with regard to language policy. It had a
12 We prefer the term ‘Ethiopianization’
well established language policy in a
instead of the term
written constitution. The first ever ‘Amharization’which is used by most
foreign writers because we feel that
constitution was provided in August
the rulers were always referring to
1930 on the coronation of Ras Teferi as themselves as rulers of Ethiopia and
their actions were justified in unifying
Emperor of Ethiopia by the name Haile
the country-creating an Ethiopian
Sellasie I. This constitution, however, culture. Note that Darkwah (1975)
argues that Minilik a systematic way
does not mention any thing about the
of assigning and controlling local
official language or any other use of rulers have a full control over them.
He also states that Minilik has
language while it itself was written in
assigned Muslim rulers in the eastern
Amharic. part of the country for economic and
political reasons.
13 Cohn 2000
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 45

culture and language for all activities in education sector. It states
Ethiopians.”14 that Amharic shall be the general
language of instruction in Ethiopia, and
Though it seems more of hypothetical missionaries are expected to comply
and it did not have such a profound with it by learning Amharic and teaching
16
effect on the country's language policy, via Amharic.
there was a brief departure from
promoting a single language during the The implementation of a single language
five year (1935-41). During this period, policy was more prevalent in the area of
the Italians helped introduce local administration, judiciary and education
languages even as media of instruction sectors. Even before the re-integration of
at primary school level. Scholars explain Eritrea with Ethiopia, the government
that the changes that Italy introduced had replaced Tigrigna and Arabic by
was part of their divide and rule policy, Amharic as a medium of instruction.17
which McNabb considers as Italy’ Later Amharic became a full-fledged
attempt to combat “nationalist medium of instruction at primary school
sentiments” and Tekeste calls (it the level throughout the country following
attempt of “passivization through the official declaration of the position of
apartheid”) as the attempt of Amharic as the official language of the
“passivization througe apartheid“ the use country in the revised constitution of
of languages as the medium of 18
1955.
instruction and other administrational

15
purpose. Haile Selasie's promotive language
policy of a single language was not
After Haile Sellasie regained power in limited in the education sector. Amharic
1941, government language policy was the legitimate language to be used in
started to come out more clearly. In all official functions: government
1944, for instance, there came out a clear publications and announcements were
directive to control the missionary

16 Cooper 1976a in Bender 1976a
14 Cohn 2000:30 17 McNabb 1989
15 Tekeste 1986 in McNabb 1989 18 McNabb 1988
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 46

all made in Amharic. A language survey as the time allotted for the broadcasting
made by Cooper showed that Amharic of other Ethiopian languages , i.e.
dominated the use of other languages in Tigrinya, Somali, Tigre and Afar. 21
19
the judiciary system.
McNabb argues that the establishment of It could be concluded that, in general
the National Academy of the Amharic during Haile Sellasie's government there
Language in June 1972 had strengthened was very little concern for the
the position of Amharic and by development of other Ethiopian
implication, the implementation of a languages. The course that Haile Sellasie
monolingual language policy. This claim followed was in line with the prevailing
is asserted by the nature of the objectives global assumption that the use of one
set for the national academy. i.e, language is useful in bringing about
1. To foster the growth of the national unification, which he sought
Amharic language very badly.22
2. To encourage the development
20
of Amharic literature. Quite contrary to the discussion so far,
there was a final, but unsuccessful
A further evidence for the nature of the attempt that was made during the very
language policy during the reign of final days of the emperor. The August
Emperor Haile Sellasie comes from the 1974 draft constitution, Article 45 states
language use of the government in the that, "With out violating all those
media. No newspaper was published in statements in other articles of the
any other Ethiopian language, except for constitution, Ethiopian tribes and
one daily Tigrigna news paper, while nationalities shall enjoy the right to
there were two daily and four weekly maintain and develop their language and
newspapers in Amharic. In addition to culture."23
this, the time that Amharic was

broadcasted on the radio twice as large
21 Tesfaye 1971 in McNabb 1989
22 Cohen 2000
23 A translation by the authors from the
19 Cooper 1976b in Bender et al 1976 Draft Constitution of Ethiopia
20 Negarit Gazeta 1987 Presented to the High Constitution