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LANDSLIDES
INVESTIGATION AND MITIGATION
SPECIAL REPORT 247
A. Keith Turner
Robert L. Schuster
Editors
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TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD
National Research Council
National Academy Press
Washington, D. C. 1996
Transportation Research Board Special Report 24 7 Sponsorship of Special Report 24 7
Division A-Technical Activities
Subscriber Category GROUP 2-DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
IlIA soils, geology, and foundations TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES
Chairman: Michael G. Katona, U.S. Air Force Armstrong
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was Laboratory
approved by the Governing Board of the National Research
Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the Study Committee on Landslides: Analysis and Control
National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy Chairman: A. Keith Turner, Colorado School of Mines
of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members David M. Cruden, J. Michael Duncan, Robert D. Holtz,
of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for Jeffrey R. Keaton, Verne C. McGuffey, Victor A. Modeer,
their special competence and with regard for appropriate Jr., RobertL. Schuster, TienH. Wu, DuncanC. Wyllie
balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than Liaison Representative
the authors according to procedures approved by a Report John L. Walkinshaw, Federal Highway Administration,
Review Committee consisting of members of the National U.S. Department of Transportation
Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engi
neering, and the Institute of Medicine. Transportation Research Board Staff
The Transportation Research Board does not endorse Robert E. Spicher, Director, Technical Activities
products or manufacturers; trade and manufacturers' names G. P. Jayaprakash, Engineer of Soils, Geology, and
may appear in this Special Report because they are Foundations
considered essential to its object. Nancy A. Ackerman, Director, Reports and Editorial Services
This report was sponsored in part by the National Naomi C. Kassabian, Associate Editor
Science Foundation. Karen White, Graphic Designer
Transportation Research Board publications are available
by ordering directly from TRB. They may also be obtained
on a regular basis through organizational or individual affil
iation with TRB; affiliates and library subscribers are eli
gible for substantial discounts. For further information, COVER Damage to railroad line in Olympia, Washington,
write to the Transportation Research Board, National caused by slope failure after 1965 Seattle-Tacoma earth
Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., quake (photograph courtesy ofG.W. Thorsen, Washington
Washington, D.C. 20418. Department of Natural Resources). Top inset: October 1986
reactivation of Cucaracha landslide in Gaillard Cut,
Copyright 1996 by the National Academy of Sciences. All Panama Canal, which originally extended across canal
rights reserved (dredges had removed much of toe by time of photograph);
Printed in the United States of America white material in upper center is lime added to surface as
remedial measure (photograph courtesy of Panama Canal
Commission). Bottom inset: Recurring landslide on
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Colorado State Highway 133 at McClure Pass west of
Aspen, spring 1993 (photograph courtesy of T.E. Taylor,
Landslides: investigation and mitigation/ A. Keith Turner, Colorado State Patrol).
Robert L. Schuster, editors.
p. cm. - (Special report / Transportation FRONTISPIECE Derailment of California Zephyr pas
Research Board, National Research Council; 247) senger train near Granby, Colorado, in April 1985 caused
Includes bibliographical references and index. by minor landslide (see Figure 2-6, p. 18) (photograph
ISBN 0-309-06151-2 courtesy of R. L. Schuster).
ISBN 0-309-06208-X (pbk.)
1. Landslide hazard analysis. 2. Landslides. I. Turner, A. TITLE PAGE Inset: Railway and highway at Howe Sound,
Keith, 1941- . II. Schuster, Robert L. III. Series: Special British Columbia, blocked by October 1990 rock fall, which
report (National Research Council (U.S.) Transportation originated approximately 300 meters above highway
Research Board); 247. (photograph courtesy of D. Howard, Vancouver Sun).
QE599.2.L36 1996 Background: detail from drawing by Alexandre Collin
551.3'07-dc20 95-40780 (1846) oflandslides in clay slopes along French canals (see
CIP Figure 1-5, page 9).
PREFACE
T
ransportation Research Board reports that A polling of the members of the TRB committees
synthesize information related to landslides within the Soil Mechanics and the Geology and
and rock fall span more than four decades. Previous Earth Materials sections clearly indicated that
reports have been widely used in the geotechnical the report should be revised to address the latest
engineering community as comprehensive, practi advances in the methods for investigation and
cal sources of information on landslides and their mitigation of landslides.
control. Among the most widely distributed of Accordingly, a study committee was established
TRB publications, these reports have enjoyed wide in 1990 with the charge to review the 1978 report,
international appeal and have been translated into identify needed changes and additions, and prepare
several languages. a new report for publication. Although aware of the
Recognizing the lack of a single source in the heavy workload that such a revision would entail, a
English language that covers the entire spectrum number of members of the task force responsible for
of issues related to landslides, the Transportation developing the 1978 report agreed to serve on the
Research Board (then the Highway Research new committee under the chairmanship of A. Keith
Board) created the Committee on Landslide Turner of the Colorado School of Mines.
Investigations in 1951. The efforts of that commit At the first meeting of the study committee in
tee resulted in Special Report 29, Landslides and January 1990, members were assigned the prepara
Engineering Practice, which was published in 1958. tion of specific chapters. Responsibilities included
In 1972 a task force was organized with members developing chapter outlines, identifying expertise
drawn from several of the committees within the outside the committee membership to provide spe
Soils and Geology Group to undertake the revision cific material or assist in writing chapters, writing
of Special Report 29. This task force concluded that material, coordinating the efforts of multiple
because of the large amount of new technical authors, and reviewing chapter drafts before sub
information available since the 1958 publication, mittal for approval by the entire committee mem
the best course of action was to prepare a com bership. In addition to holding meetings in
pletely new report. Six years was required to pre Washington, D.C., during the TRB Annual Meeting,
pare and publish TRB Special Report 176, the committee held three other formal meetings.
Landslides: Analysis and Control. These discussions greatly improved the quality of the
Special Report 176 was reprinted a number of individual chapters. Although the material con
times, and by 1989 the Board was once again faced tained in each chapter is solely attributed to the
with the decision of whether to continue to reprint author(s) of the chapter, committee members also
the existing text or to undertake a further revision. were responsible for reviewing the report as a whole.
vi Preface
This latest volume in the series ofTRB Special ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Reports on landslides contains 25 chapters writ
ten by 30 authors. Prepared by experts from the Coordination and technical editing of the efforts of
United States, Canada, and the Netherlands, this multiple authorship are not easy tasks. The
report has a broader international scope and con Transportation Research Board and the future users
siderably more extensive coverage than its prede of this report worldwide are indebted to the
cessors. The authors of several of the chapters are members of the study committee for their efforts.
involved in international landslide coordination Sincere appreciation is expressed to all those who
programs, and this new report has been designed contributed information in the form of data and
to reinforce those international efforts. photographs, ideas, and advice, without which this
Measurements of the International System of volume could not have been completed. To list all
Units (SI) are used in this report. A table of con contributors would be impossible; to list the most
version factors for SI and inch/pound (U.S. cus important would be unfair to the others.
tomary) units of measurements is provided in This book was produced by busy individuals
Appendix B. who volunteered their time and talents to its cre
ation. The committee members were aided by sev
eral individuals who agreed to write, review, and
supervise the development of particular chapters
or portions of chapters. Brief biographies for all
members of the study committee and the chapter
authors are provided at the end of the report. The
editors wish to thank this dedicated group for their
encouragement, unfailing goodwill, and patience
during the lengthy editorial process.
The funding assistance provided by the
National Science Foundation in support of this
project is gratefully acknowledged.
Finally, special thanks go to TRB staff members
G. P. Jayaprakash, Engineer of Soils, Geology, and
Foundations; Robert E. Spicher, Director, Technical
Activities; Nancy A. Ackerman, Director, Reports
and Editorial Services; and Naomi Kassabian,
Associate Editor.
A. Keith Turner and Robert L. Schuster
Editors
