Landscapes

444 Pages·2014·13.81 MB·English

Climate-Smart
Landscapes:
Edited by
Multifunctionality in Practice
Peter A. Minang
Meine van Noordwijk
Olivia E. Freeman
Cheikh Mbow
Jan de Leeuw
Delia Catacutan
Climate-Smart Landscapes:
Multifunctionality In Practice
Edited by
Peter A. Minang, Meine van Noordwijk,
Olivia E. Freeman, Cheikh Mbow,
Jan de Leeuw and Delia Catacutan
The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) holds the copyright to its publications and web-pages
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Printed in Nairobi, Kenya
ISBN 978-92-9059-375-1
Citation: Minang, P. A., van Noordwijk, M., Freeman, O. E., Mbow, C., de Leeuw, J., &
Catacutan, D. (Eds.) (2015). Climate-Smart Landscapes: Multifunctionality In Practice. Nairobi,
Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).
Cover Image: Overlooking a landscape adjacent to Mount Elgon National Park in southeast
Uganda. Photo credit: Connor J. Cavanagh
Printing and layout: Kul Graphics Limited, P. O. Box 18095, Nairobi, Kenya
T: [phone]/530602 E: [email protected]
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)
ASB Partnership for the Tropical Forest Margins (ASB)
United Nations Avenue, Gigiri
P.O. Box 30677-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
T: [phone]; [phone] F: [phone]
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www.worldagroforestry.org
www.asb.cgiar.org
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)
The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) is one of the Centres of the CGIAR Consortium.
Its vision is rural transformation in the developing world as smallholder households increase
their use of trees in agricultural landscapes to improve food security, nutrition, income, health,
shelter, social cohesion, energy resources and environmental sustainability. The Centre’s mission
is to generate science-based knowledge about the diverse roles that trees play in agricultural
landscapes, and to use its research to advance policies and practices, and their implementation
to benefit the poor and the environment. The organization conducts research in 34 countries in
Africa, Asia and Latin America.
ASB Partnership for the Tropical Forest Margins (ASB)
The ASB Partnership for the Tropical Forest Margins is working to raise productivity and income
of rural households in the humid tropics without increasing deforestation or undermining essential
environmental services. ASB is a consortium of over 50 international and national-level partners
with an eco-regional focus on the forest-agriculture margins in the humid tropics, with learning
landscapes in the western Amazon of Brazil and Peru, the Congo basin in Cameroon and the
Democratic Republic of Congo, southern Philippines, northern Thailand, northern Vietnam and
the island of Sumatra in Indonesia.
© 2015 World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)
Contents
List of Figures, Tables and Boxes vi
List of Abbreviations xii
Foreword xviii
Acknowledgements xx
List of Authors xxii
Summary xxxii
Global Landscapes Map xxxiv
Part 1: Introduction
1
1 Introduction and basic propositions 3
Peter A. Minang, Meine van Noordwijk, Olivia E. Freeman, Lalisa A. Duguma, Cheikh Mbow,
Jan de Leeuw and Delia Catacutan
Part 2: Understanding Landscapes
19
2 Whither landscapes? Compiling requirements of the landscape
approach 21
Emmanuel Torquebiau
3 Characterising multifunctionality in climate-smart landscapes 37
Olivia E. Freeman
4 What can climate-smart agricultural landscapes learn from the gestion
de terroirs approach? 51
Florence Bernard
5 Landscape restoration from a social-ecological system perspective? 63
Lalisa A. Duguma, Peter A. Minang, Mathew Mpanda, Anthony Kimaro
and Dieudonne Alemagi
6 Climate Smart Territories (CST): An integrated approach to food
security, ecosystem services, and climate change in rural areas 75
Bastiaan Louman, José Joaquín Campos-Arce, Leida Mercado, Pablo Imbach,
Claudia Bouroncle, Bryan Finegan, Claudia Martínez, César Mendoza, Roger Villalobos,
Claudia Medellín, Cristobal Villanueva, Tatiana Mendoza, Amilcar Aguilar and Danilo Padilla
7 Integrated landscape initiatives in practice: assessing experiences from
191 landscapes in Africa and Latin America 89
Abigail K. Hart, Jeffrey C. Milder, Natalia Estrada-Carmona, Fabrice A. J. DeClerck,
Celia A. Harvey and Philip Dobie
8 How can an integrated landscape approach contribute to the
implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and
advance climate-smart objectives? 103
Cheikh Mbow, Constance Neely and Philip Dobie
iii
Part 3: From Concepts to Inducing Change
119
9 Scale considerations in landscape approaches 121
Peter A. Minang, Lalisa A. Duguma, Dieudonne Alemagi and Meine van Noordwijk
10 Leveraging landscapes: A systems approach to drivers of change 135
Lalisa A. Duguma and Peter A. Minang
11 Landcare - a landscape approach at scale 151
Delia Catacutan, Clinton Muller, Mary Johnson and Dennis Garrity
12 Landscape-level constraints and opportunities for sustainable
intensification in smallholder systems in the tropics 163
Ingrid Öborn, Shem Kuyah, Mattias Jonsson, A. Sigrun Dahlin, Hosea Mwangi
and Jan de Leeuw
13 Water-focused landscape management 179
Meine van Noordwijk, Beria Leimona, Ma Xing, Lisa Tanika, Sara Namirembe
and Didik Suprayogo
14 Opportunities and challenges of landscape approaches for sustainable
charcoal production and use 195
Miyuki Iiyama, Henry Neufeldt, Philip Dobie, Roy Hagen, Mary Njenga, Geoffrey Ndegwa,
Jeremias Gasper Mowo, Philip Kisoyan and Ramni Jamnadass
15 Gender-specific spatial perspectives and scenario building approaches
for understanding gender equity and sustainability in climate-smart
landscapes 211
Grace B. Villamor, P. Afiavi Dah-gbeto, Andrew Bell, Ujjwal Pradhan
and Meine van Noordwijk
16 The opportunity costs of emission reduction: a methodology and
application to support land use planning for low emission development 227
S Suyanto, Andree Ekadinata, Rachmat Mulia, Feri Johana and Atiek Widayati
17 Negotiation support tools to enhance multifunctioning landscapes 243
Sonya Dewi, Andree Ekadinata, Dony Indiarto, Alfa Nugraha and Meine van Noordwijk
18 Institutional arrangements for climate-smart landscapes 257
Susan W. Wambugu, Susan W. Chomba and Joanes Atela
Part 4: Involving the Private Sector
275
19 Private sector investment in landscape approaches: the role of
production standards and certification 277
Gabrielle Kissinger, Mark Moroge and Martin Noponen
20 Landscape approaches to sustainable supply chain management: the
role of agribusinesses 295
Amos Gyau, Judith Oduol, Mercy Mbugua, Divine Foundjem-Tita, Djalal Ademonla Arinloye
and Christophe Kouame
21 Private sector engagement in landscape-based approaches - lessons
from cases in East Africa 307
Sara Namirembe and Florence Bernard
iv
Part 5: Contextualized Experience
317
22 Operationalizing climate-smart agricultural landscapes: the case of a
tea- producing landscape in Kericho, Kenya 319
Jeffrey C. Milder, Mark Moroge and Seth Shames
23 Institutional dynamics and landscape change – a case study of Southern
Cameroon 335
Divine Foundjem-Tita, Stijn Speelman, Peter A. Minang, Peter Mbile, Samuel N. Ndobe
and Zac Tchoundjeu
24 Pathways for sustainable intensification and diversification of cocoa
agroforestry landscapes in Cameroon 347
Dieudonne Alemagi, Peter A. Minang, Lalisa A. Duguma, Anderson Kehbila and Faith Ngum
25 Landscape approaches in the Congo Basin: linking the Democratic
Republic of Congo’s Emission Reduction Program (ERP) and the
Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) 361
Kalame Fobissie
Part 6: Synthesis and Conclusions
373
26 The future of landscape approaches: interacting theories of place and
change 375
Meine van Noordwijk, Peter A. Minang, Olivia E. Freeman, Cheikh Mbow and Jan de Leeuw
27 Enhancing multifunctionality through system improvement and
landscape democracy processes: a synthesis 389
Peter A. Minang, Lalisa A. Duguma, Meine van Noordwijk, Ravi Prabhu
and Olivia E. Freeman
v
Lists of Figures, Tables and Boxes
Figures
1.1 A landscape as the interaction between human actions, ecosystems and
the abiotic factors that shape the physical environment 6
1.2 Visualization of an actual landscape as a member of a wider set of locally
feasible landscape configurations, constrained by household decisions
and national context 7
1.3 Visualization of climate change as part of the wider set of interacting
global change influences and drivers of change at the landscape scale,
modified by national development policy and its implementation 7
1.4 Examples of the multiple starting points for landscape approaches, that
may have a common destination and all use an adaptive collaborative
management learning loop approach 10
2.1 Spatial structure of an agricultural landscape 23
2.2 Landscape units’ categories 25
2.3 Various types of landscape matrices (from Perfecto et al., 2009) that
connect forest fragments 26
2.4 Landscape-level ‘biodiversity-friendly’ schemes 29
2.5 Possible protected areas across a landscape 29
3.1 Linkages and interactions including potential drivers and incentives
across local, landscape, national and global scales 39
3.2 Different combinations of synergistic interventions addressing different
combinations of primary objectives 43
4.1 Key steps for implementation of GT 53
5.1 Hypothetical degradation-restoration schematic in natural resources
management at scales such as a landscape 66
5.2 Schematic showing elements that characterized the gradual changes in
the Shinyanga Region, Tanzania 68
6.1 Diagram of the relationship between landscapes and territories 78
7.1 Proportion of the respondents who reported their initiative as including
each of the 33 specific investments and activities (left panel) and as
achieving each of the 22 specific outcomes (right panel) across the four
domains of landscape multifunctionality 95
8.1 The evolution of approaches within the scientific and development
contexts 107
8.2 An interpretation of the various principles of a landscape approach
(based on Sayer et al., 2013; see Box 8.1) described in three categories:
prerequisites, action items and aims 109
vi
9.1 Hierarchical representations of scale and scale interactions 124
10.1 Understanding the processes that led to ecosystem degradation in the
Shinyanga Region 142
11.1 Countries where there is an interest in Landcare and where Landcare
initiatives currently exist 153
11.2 Community members working through a Landcare project to repair the
erosion of Mafidhi gully with gabion walls in Chivi District, Masvingo
Province in Zimbabwe 154
12.1 Trees in and around coffee plantations in Costa Rica have significantly
reduced coffee berry borer infestations via different mechanisms, e.g.,
hosting predators such as birds 168
12.2 Establishment of forest gardens in Cam My Commune, Central Vietnam,
contributes to sustainable livelihoods of local, smallholder farmers 170
12.3 West Pokot in semi-arid area of Kenya: degraded landscape (left),
restored landscaped with enclosures in (centre), livestock grazing in
enclosure (right) 171
13.1 Schematic representation of the hydrological cycle between oceans and
land with twelve targets and intervention points that have over time been
included in ‘integrated water management’ discussions 188
14.1 Charcoal economics 198
14.2 A LA for sustainable charcoal 205
14.3 Top: Urbanization has led to increasing demand for charcoal as a
preferred, affordable fuel (Photo credit: Miyuki Iiyama) Bottom:
Charcoal production targets mature hardwood species with significant
degradation impacts (Photo credit: Geoffrey Ndegwa) 206
15.1 Gender specific spatial organization of households' farm management 214
15.2 Patterns of land-use change under variable precipitation conditions
created by the women-only group (1; a and b) and the men-only group
(2; c and d) 219
15.3 Land use change patterns based on the RPGs of women-only (a) and
men-only (b) groups 220
15.4 Land-use change pattern using a 2005 land use map as a baseline 220
16.1 Schematic diagram of opportunity cost estimation 230
16.2 Conceptual figure of the opportunity cost curve 232
16.3 The four core modules of the FALLOW model described in Lusiana et
al. (2012) 233
16.4 Location of Tanjabar District in Jambi Province, Sumatra, Indonesia and
the different land uses within the landscape area 234
vii
16.5 Opportunity cost curve of emission reductions from land use change in
Tanjabar 236
16.6 Potential emission reductions at 5 USD/tCOe and 10 USD/tCOe
2 2
thresholds 236
17.1 Land Use Planning for Multiple Environmental Services (LUMENS):
process and components 246
17.2 Merangin working group conducting planning unit reconciliation (left);
mosaic of cropland and agroforests in river valley of Merangin (right) 249
17.3 Planning Unit map resulting from the reconciliation process 250
17.4 Projections of land use/cover maps to 2025 under the three different
scenarios 251
17.5 Changes over time (due to actual land use/cover changes until 2010, and
scenario-based projection of land use/cover changes from 2015-2025) 252
18.1 Institutional arrangements, i.e., actors and their interactions at various
levels, governed by laws, rules and regulations in shaping landscapes
(developed from multi-level governance perspectives and social
dimensions of climate change) 258
20.1 Vision for Change project 301
22.1 Map of the Kericho landscape 321
22.2 View of the Kericho landscape, which consists of a mosaic of tea
production areas, annual crop parcels, eucalyptus woodlots, forest
conservation areas, and human settlements 322
25.1 Location of CARPE landscapes within the Congo Basin forest area 361
26.1 Combination of Figures 1.2 and 1.3, showing the overall complexity
of the way landscapes as socio-ecological systems interact with wider
national and global system scales, as well as with households and
(gender and wealth differentiated) individual livelihood strategies 376
26.2 The relationship between ToP and ToC at the landscape scale are
reflected through the answers to six main groups of questions 380
26.3 Generic ToC for global progress towards the SDGs, by combining six
roles for agents of change (see text) and three knowledge value chains 381
27.1 An Illustration showing both adaptive collaborative management (ACM)
and system improvement process (SIP) 391
27.2 The Landscape Process Wheel showing main landscape processes 393
27.3 A suggested good governance framework for assessing landscape
negotiation processes 398
viii
Tables
3.1 Descriptions and examples of additive and superadditive synergies 42
4.1 Key similarities and differences between the GT and climate-smart
landscape approaches 55
7.1 Summary of selected characteristics of surveyed initiatives in Africa (87)
and Latin America and the Caribbean (104) 93
8.1 The SDGs and the potential contribution of the landscape approach to
these goals 110
9.1 Summary of scale interpretations in landscapes 125
10.1 Meadows (1999)’s recommendation for leverage points in a system with
corresponding examples of leveraging options at the landscape level 139
10.2 Leveraging areas and preliminary diagnostic questions to identify the
levers in a landscape 143
13.1 Six questions that in combination lead to a basic understanding of water
management at the landscape scale and the interactions with other
ecosystem services 181
13.2 Methods for various stages of negotiating integrated water management
at the landscape scale, referring to the six questions of Table 13.1 181
13.3 Four key dimensions to understand the spectrum of governance
instruments for enhancing watershed functions of landscapes in ways
that are both efficient and fair 185
14.1 Application of Sayer et al. (2013)’s ten principles for LAs in different
woodfuel interventions 202
16.1 Time-averaged carbon stock and profitability of land use systems in
Tanjabar 235
16.2 Potential loss of annual income per tCOe of each scenario compared to
2
the BAU in the Tanjabar District, calculated by the FALLOW model 238
18.1 Comparative matrix for the three case projects aiming to achieve climate-
smart outcomes in various landscapes 265
19.1 Case study summary: production standards and ILM 283
22.1 Highlights of results of the climate-smart landscape assessment process
in each of the six activity domains 325
24.1 Tradeoffs in sustainable intensification and diversification pathways of
CALs in Cameroon 351
24.2 Examples of different direct and indirect incentive mechanisms 354
25.1 Some of the differences between CARPE and the ERPs, focusing mainly
on the DRC context 366
27.1 Summary of how chapters in this book address various dimensions of
landscape processes 394
ix