Table Of ContentKWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND 
TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI, GHANA 
 
 
 
 
SMALLHOLDER FARMERS‘ MITIGATION OF AND ADAPTATION 
TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND CLIMATE VARIABILITY IN THE 
BOSOMTWE DISTRICT OF ASHANTI REGION, GHANA 
 
 
By 
 
Sampson Yamba 
B.A (Hons) Geography and Rural Development 
 
 
A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Kwame Nkrumah 
University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, in Partial Fulfilment of 
the Requirement for the Award of a Degree 
Of 
MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY 
In Geography and Rural Development 
College of Humanities and Social Sciences 
 
 
NOVEMBER 2016
DECLARATION 
I  hereby  declare  that  this  MPhil  thesis  is  my  own  production.  Except  for  the 
references cited, which I have duly acknowledged, no section of this thesis is a 
reproduction of anybody‘s work submitted for the award of a degree in any university. 
I therefore take full responsibility of the content. 
 
 
Signature                                                            Date                       
………………………………..      …………………………. 
Sampson Yamba (PG9418013) 
(Student) 
 
Certified by: 
 
………………………………..      …………………………. 
Mr. Divine Odame Appiah 
(Supervisor) 
 
………………………………..      …………………………. 
Mrs. Lawrencia Pokuah Siaw 
(Supervisor) 
 
Certified by  
 
………………………………..      …………………………. 
Dr. Prince Osei-Wusu Adjei 
(Head of Department) 
   
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ABSTRACT 
Agriculture  has  provided  humanity  with  food  and  other  resources  necessary  for 
human development since time immemorial and is the backbone of many developing 
economies. Recent patterns of anthropogenic induced greenhouse effect is however 
posing a threat to this role. In the Bosomtwe District, known micro-climatic trends for 
agricultural activities have become inconsistent and unpredictable, with consequential 
effects  on  productive  agricultural  engagement.  This  study  therefore  examined 
smallholder farmers‘ adaptation to climate change and the potential for agricultural 
based climate change mitigation through Reduced Emission from Deforestation and 
Forest Degradation with forest conservation and sustainable management (REDD+) 
and Land Use Change (LUC) in the Bosomtwe District of Ashanti Region. Primary 
data  was  acquired  through  interviews  and  questionnaire  administration  to  key 
informants and 152 smallholder farmers respectively who were selected from twelve 
communities in the study area. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences and 
Excel software were used to analyze the quantitative data while content analysis was 
used to analyze the qualitative data. The study rejected the null hypotheses that there 
is no significant relationship between annual average temperature and quantity of 
maize produced. Results revealed that 93% of smallholder farmers in the Bosomtwe 
District have adapted to climate change. Also 93% of respondents are still considering 
other sources of livelihood activities other than agriculture which is  the primary 
occupation. Majority (64%) of them are willing to undertake REDD+ mechanisms as 
avenues for benefits and conservation of carbon stocks in trees. Although the pattern 
of land use change is constraining farmers‘ ability to adapt to climate variability and 
climate change, land use change is not climate induced. It is recommended that the 
Ministry  of  Agriculture  policies  be  directed  towards  streamlining  autonomous 
adaptation,  securing  farmers  livelihood  and  harnessing  local  potential  through  a 
participatory approach for the effective mitigation and adaptation to climate change at 
the community level. 
 
 
 
 
 
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TABLE OF CONTENT 
DECLARATION.......................................................................................................... ii 
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ iii 
TABLE OF CONTENT .............................................................................................. iv 
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... viii 
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... ix 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... xi 
DEDICATION.......................................................................................................... xiii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................... xiv 
 
CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................... 1 
FARMERS’ MITIGATION OF AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE  
CHANGE ...................................................................................................................... 1 
1.1   INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1 
1.2   PROBLEM STATEMENT .............................................................................. 6 
1.3   RESEARCH QUESTIONS .............................................................................. 8 
1.4   OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ..................................................................... 8 
1.4.1   Main Objective .................................................................................................8 
1.4.2   Specific Objectives ...........................................................................................8 
1.5   HYPOTHESIS AND PROPOSITIONS ........................................................... 9 
1.5.1   Hypothesis ........................................................................................................9 
1.5.2  Propositions ......................................................................................................9 
1.6   METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................... 9 
1.6.1   Introduction ......................................................................................................9 
1.6.2   Research Design .............................................................................................10 
1.6.2   Research Approach .........................................................................................10 
1.6.3  Types and Sources of Data .............................................................................11 
1.6.4.   Sampling Procedure .......................................................................................11 
1.6.5   Analyses and Presentation of Findings ..........................................................13 
1.6.6   Justification of Study ......................................................................................14 
1.6.7   Scope of the Study ..........................................................................................14 
1.6.8   Limitations of the Study .................................................................................15 
1.6.9   Organization of the Study ...............................................................................15 
1.6.10   Ethical Considerations ....................................................................................16 
 
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................... 17 
CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION WITH 
AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST LAND USE NEXUS ...................................... 17 
2.1   INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 17 
2.2.   GLOBAL TO NATIONAL TRENDS OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY      
AND CLIMATE CHANGE ........................................................................... 17 
2.2.1   Past and Current Causes Of Climate Variability and Climate Change ..........17 
2.2.2   Global Trends of Climate Variability and Climate Change ...........................19 
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2.2.3   Climate Variability and Climate Change Trends in Africa ............................20 
2.2.4   Ghana‘s Climate Change: Trends and Experiences .......................................22 
2.3   SUSTAINABLE FARMERS‘ ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION 
STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CLIMATE       
CHANGE ....................................................................................................... 25 
2.3.1   Introduction ....................................................................................................25 
2.3.2   Agriculture Related Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation                 
Efforts in Africa ..............................................................................................26 
2.3.3   Sustainable Agricultural Greenhouse Mitigation and Adaptation to            
Climate Change ..............................................................................................28 
2.3.4   Experience of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in Ghana ............30 
2.4   FARMERS‘ LIVELIHOOD SECURITY AMIDST CHANGING          
CLIMATE ...................................................................................................... 34 
2.4.1   Introduction ....................................................................................................34 
2.4.2   African Farmers Livelihood Security .............................................................35 
2.4.3   Security of Farmers‘ Livelihoods in Ghana ...................................................37 
2.5   AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST LAND USE POTENTIAL FOR              
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF REDD+ AT THE GRASSROOTS ............. 39 
2.5.1   Introduction ....................................................................................................39 
2.5.2   The REDD+ and Deforestation Nexus ...........................................................39 
2.5.3   The Potential for Agroforestry .......................................................................40 
2.5.4   Challenges of Agriculture and Forest Land Use (AFOLU) ...........................42 
2.6   AGRICULTURAL LAND USE CHANGE AND                          
MODIFICATION INDUCED CLIMATE CHANGE ................................... 45 
2.6.1   Introduction ....................................................................................................45 
2.6.2   Land Use and Climate Mitigation Potential in the Temperate and Tropics ...45 
2.6.3   Land Use Change (LUC): Drivers, Trends and Interactions ..........................46 
2.6.4   Land Use Change in Ghana ............................................................................48 
2.7   ACTION THEORY ON ADAPTATION: A THEORETICAL 
FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................. 50 
2.7.1   Introduction ....................................................................................................50 
2.7.2   The Stimulus Concept ....................................................................................51 
2.7.3   The Exposure Unit Concept ...........................................................................52 
2.7.4   The Impact Concept .......................................................................................52 
2.7.5   The Operators and Actions Concepts .............................................................53 
2.7.6   The Receptor Concept ....................................................................................53 
2.7.7   The Concept of Process and Actions ..............................................................54 
2.7.8   The Concept of Means and Conditions ..........................................................54 
2.8   CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK................................................................... 55 
2.8.1   Climate Change and Food Security: A Conceptual Framework ....................55 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................... 63 
BIOPHYSICAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF 
SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN THE BOSOMTWE DISTRICT ..................... 63 
3.1   INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 63 
3.2   LOCATION AND SIZE ................................................................................ 63 
3.3   PHYSICAL FEATURES ............................................................................... 65 
3.3.1   Relief and Drainage ........................................................................................65 
3.3.2   Climate ...........................................................................................................65 
3.3.3   Vegetation ......................................................................................................65 
3.4   DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS ..................................................... 66 
3.4.1   Population Size and Growth Rates .................................................................66 
3.4.2   Population Density .........................................................................................66 
3.4.3   Household Sizes .............................................................................................66 
3.4.4   Age and Sex Composition ..............................................................................67 
3.4.5   Land Related Practices ...................................................................................68 
3.5   ECONOMIC AND LIVELIHOOD ACTIVITIES ......................................... 68 
 
CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................... 70 
SMALLHOLDER FARMERS’ ADAPTATION STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE 
CHANGE: THE EVIDENCE ................................................................................... 70 
4.1   INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 70 
4.2   SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS..... 70 
4.3   TRENDS OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE           
IN THE BOSOMTWE DISTRICT ................................................................ 72 
4.3.1   Analysis of Rainfall Trend .............................................................................72 
4.3.2   Analysis of Temperature Trends ....................................................................84 
4.4   SMALLHOLDER ADAPTATIONS TO CLIMATE VARIABILITY          
AND CLIMATE CHANGE ........................................................................... 97 
4.4.1   Introduction ....................................................................................................97 
4.4.2   Factors Determining Adaptation in the Bosomtwe District ...........................98 
4.4.3   On-Farm Adaptation Practices .....................................................................102 
4.4.4   On-Farm Extensification Practices ...............................................................106 
4.4.5   Likelihood of Farmers Persistently Practicing a Particular Adaptation 
Strategy .........................................................................................................108 
4.4.6   A Comparative Analysis of Adaptation Practices Based on Proximity of 
Communities to Lake Bosomtwe .................................................................111 
4.5   AN ASSESSMENT OF ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS OF 
SMALLHOLDER FARMERS AS AN OFF-FARM ADAPTATION 
STRATEGY IN THE FACE OF CLIMATE CHANGE ............................. 120 
4.5.1   Introduction ..................................................................................................120 
4.5.2   Willingness to Consider Changing Current Occupation ..............................121 
4.5.3   Farmers‘ Alternative Livelihood Activities .................................................123 
4.5.4  Comparative Analysis of Alternative Livelihood Activities of         
Smallholder Farmers ....................................................................................129 
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CHAPTER FIVE: .................................................................................................... 132 
AGRICULTURE BASED CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION: THE 
EVIDENCE .............................................................................................................. 132 
5.1.   INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 132 
5.1.1   Willingness of Smallholder Farmers to Adopt REDD+ ...............................133 
5.1.2   Relationship between Land Tenure Arrangement and REDD+ Benefits .....135 
5.1.3   Smallholder Farmers‘ Knowledge of the Benefits of Forests ......................137 
5.2   PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURAL LAND USE CHANGE ..................... 140 
5.2.1   Introduction ..................................................................................................140 
5.2.2   Trends of Agricultural Lands Use Change among Smallholder Farmers ....141 
5.2.3   Trends of Agricultural Land Use Modification ............................................143 
5.2.4   Implication of Settlement of Agrarian Lands ...............................................145 
5.2.5   Relevance of Conserved Agricultural Land and Land Cover Change                    
to CVCC .......................................................................................................147 
 
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................ 150 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 150 
6.1   SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 150 
6.1.1   Trends of Climate Variability and Climate Change .....................................151 
6.1.2   On-farm and Off-Farm Adaptation Practices of Smallholder Farmers ........151 
6.1.3   The Potential for Reducing Deforestation and Forest Degradation with 
Conservation and Sustainable Forest Management among Smallholder 
Farmers .........................................................................................................153 
6.1.4.   Agricultural Land Use Change and Modification Patterns among  
Smallholder Farmers ....................................................................................153 
6.2   CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................... 154 
6.3   POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................. 155 
6.3.1   Investments in Communications ..................................................................155 
6.3.2   Adaptation and Livelihoods: A Holistic Approach ......................................156 
6.3.3   Local Participation in REDD+ and Environmental Resource          
Management .................................................................................................157 
6.3.4   Collaboration Forums ...................................................................................157 
6.3.5   Limitations of the Study and Issues for Further Studies ..............................158 
 
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 159 
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................... 187 
 
   
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LIST OF TABLES 
Table 1.1:   Sample Size Determination for Each Study Community. ...................... 13 
Table 3.1:   Age Distribution of Population ............................................................... 67 
Table 3.2:   Structure of District Economy ................................................................ 69 
Table 4.1:   Level of education of respondents .......................................................... 71 
Table 4.2:   Linear regression showing the relationship between average annual 
temperature and annual quantity of maize .............................................. 95 
Table 4.3:   Multiple regression on factors determining annual maize yield. ............ 96 
Table 4.4:   Regression on factors determining adaptation ........................................ 98 
Table 4.5:   Logistic Regression table likelihood of farmers persistently             
practicing a particular adaptation strategy ............................................ 110 
Table 4.6:   Logistic regression table on likelihood to consider changing current 
primary occupation ............................................................................... 123 
Table 4.7:   Farmers switching to alternative livelihood activities due to the 
consistency and predictability of rainfall. ............................................. 128 
Table 5.1:   Correlation between monthly income and number of trees planted. .... 135 
Table 5.2:   Smallholder farmers‘ knowledge of the benefits of forests .................. 138 
Table 5.3:   Correlation between total number of farms owned in the last fifteen  
years and the number that has been changed. ....................................... 141 
Table 5.4:   Cross Tabulation of Pattern of Agricultural Land Use Change and           
the Location of Communities................................................................ 143 
Table 5.5:   Location of community and constrains in farm extensification............ 146 
 
 
 
 
   
viii
LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 2.1:   Global land surface temperature and carbon dioxide from                   
1750 to 2000. ......................................................................................... 19 
Figure 2.2:   Rainfall regimes in Africa (1900-2000) ................................................ 22 
Figure 2.3   Climate Change and Food Security: A Conceptual Framework ........... 57 
Figure 2.4:   Farmers Mitigation of and Adaptation to Climate Variability: A 
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................... 59 
Figure 3.1:   Bosomtwe District in the National and Regional context with the           
study communities ................................................................................. 64 
Figure 4.1:   Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1981-1983. ................................ 73 
Figure 4.2:   Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1984-1986 ................................. 74 
Figure 4.3:   Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1987-1989. ................................ 75 
Figure 4.4:   Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1990-1992 ................................. 76 
Figure 4.5:   Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1993-1995 ................................. 77 
Figure 4.6:   Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1996-1998 ................................. 78 
Figure 4.7:   Intra annual rainfall distribution from 1999-2001. ................................ 79 
Figure 4.8:   Intra annual rainfall distribution from 2002-2004 ................................. 80 
Figure 4.9:   Intra annual rainfall distribution from 2005-2007 ................................. 81 
Figure 4.10:  Intra annual rainfall distribution from 2008-2011 ................................. 82 
Figure 4.11:  Mean Annual rainfall anomalies from 1981-2011. ............................... 83 
Figure 4.12:  Intra annual temperature distribution from 1981–1983 ........................ 85 
Figure 4.13:  Intra annual temperature distribution from 1984-1986 ......................... 86 
Figure 4.14:  Intra annual temperature distribution from 1987– 989 ......................... 87 
Figure 4.15:  Intra annual temperature distribution from 1990 – 1992 ...................... 87 
Figure 4.16:  Intra annual temperature distribution from 1993–1995 ........................ 88 
Figure 4.17:  Intra annual temperature distribution from 1996-1998 ......................... 89 
Figure 4.18:  Intra annual temperature distribution from 1999–2001. ....................... 90 
Figure 4.19:  Intra annual temperature distribution from 2002-2004 ......................... 90 
Figure 4.20:  Intra annual temperature distribution from 2005–2007. ....................... 91 
Figure 4.21:  Intra annual temperature distribution from 2008-2011 ......................... 92 
Figure 4.22:  Mean Annual temperature anomalies from 1981-2011. ........................ 93 
Figure 4.23:  Pie chart showing adaptation categorization in the Bosomtwe         
District. ................................................................................................ 102 
Figure 4.24:  On-farm adaptation (intensification) practices among smallholder 
farmers in the Bosomtwe District. ....................................................... 106 
Figure 4.25:   Extensification (adaptation) practices among smallholder farmers         
in the Bosomtwe District. .................................................................... 108 
Figure 4.26:  Intensification practices among communities farther from Lake 
Bosomtwe. ........................................................................................... 115 
Figure 4.27:  Intensification practices among communities close to Lake           
Bosomtwe ............................................................................................ 116 
Figure 4.28:  On-farm extensification practices in the selected communities. ......... 118 
Figure 4.29:  Alternative Income Generating Activities ........................................... 124 
Figure 4.30:  Number of years of involvement in alternative income activities ....... 127 
Figure 5.1:   Smallholder farmers‘ knowledge of REDD+ in the Bosomtwe        
District ................................................................................................. 132 
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Figure 5.2:   Land tenure in the Bosomtwe District. ................................................ 136 
Figure 5.3:   Tenure implications for access to REDD+ benefits ............................ 136 
Figure 5.4:   Agricultural land use modification in the Bosomtwe District ............. 144 
Figure 5.5:   Land use change constraining expansion of farms .............................. 145 
Figure 5.6:   Effects of agricultural land use and land cover change ....................... 147 
 
   
x
Description:references cited, which I have duly acknowledged, no section of this thesis is a reproduction of anybody's  smallholder farmers' adaptation to climate change and the potential for agricultural based climate change  successful completion of this study and the entire master's programme. My profound.