Table Of ContentHuman Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-
Knowledge
Volume 2
Article 11
Issue 2Critical Theories in Applied Settings
1-1-2003
The Roots of Procrastination: A Sociological
Inquiry into Why I Wait Until Tomorrow
Jennifer M. Kosmas
University of Massachusetts Boston
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Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge: Vol. 2: Iss. 2, Article 11.
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HUMAN ARCHITECTURE: JOURNAL OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF SELF-KNOWLEDGE
A Publication of the Omar Khayyam Center for Integrative Research in Utopia, Mysticism, and Science (Utopystics)
Vol. II, No. 2, Fall 2003/Spring 2004.
HUMAN ISSN: 1540-5699. © Copyright by Ahead Publishing House (imprint: Okcir Press). All Rights Reserved.
ARCHITECTURE
Journal of the Sociology of Self-
and decisions regarding what course of ac-
tion to follow, even if at odds with what
broader society prescribes. The notion is es-
pecially important to Mead because he be-
lieves that the “human act is formed
through self-interaction” (Wallace and
The Roots of Wolf, 201). The Matrix is an artificial reality
that the individual perceives as being actu-
Procrastination: al reality; therefore, when Neo learns that
his mind is actually a part of the Matrix,
A Sociological Inquiry into through training and exercise learns to ex-
perience the Matrix as defines it for himself.
Why I Wait Until Tomorrow
In this situation, Neo is self-interacting, but
his self-interaction can generate the virtual
reality of the Matrix. But to arrive at that
power, he had to relearn his past. During
Jennifer M. Kosmas
the movie Neo is shown a sign that reads,
“Know Thyself.” This is to show that we
UMass Boston must try to understand ourselves and ac-
knowledge our own incarcerations in the
society we find ourselves so that we may
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
set ourselves free from social prisons that
Ever since high school, I have struggled
may be partly a result of our own actions
with handing in papers late, withdrawing
and the virtual realities we have create for
from classes, and failing classes due to in-
ourselves through our harmful self-interac-
complete work. I have always wondered
tions. If we can become aware of our own
why? When my academic work first be-
social constructions, then we can also break
came negatively affected, I thought it was
out of the self-destructive habits by know-
due to my diagnosed depression. I would
ing ourselves. For instance, in knowing that
take time off to “recover” and then when I
low self-esteem causes my problems with
felt “ready” for school again I would enroll.
procrastination, I know I can reinterpret my
And yet my cycle of failure persists to this
behavior based on my past knowledge and
day. This has brought forth much frustra-
by using and applying this new knowledge
tion and aggravation throughout much of
obtain a different outcome. If I explore and
the latter part of my life, especially because
can understand the reasons for which I pro-
I particularly enjoy learning and taking
crastinate, then I will be able to change my
classes. I realize this compulsive habit may
self-destructive behavior. It is all whether
be due to my lack of self-confidence.
one wants to know the truth or not. Would
We began this semester by watching
you take the red pill or the blue pill?
the film The Matrix, which pertains to
I joke about my procrastination with
George Herbert Mead’s theory of symbol-
others, but when I look at the feelings I ex-
ic interactionism and the self, as it is only
perience when I try to complete certain
through self-knowledge that one can best
tasks, such as when I sit down to write a pa-
determine one’s own actions. In Herbert
per, some of them include: agony, anxiety,
Blumer’s view, the individual has the ca-
depression, mental block, embarrassment,
pacity to critically reflect on what s/he
lack of self-esteem, loneliness, and guilt for
learned in the past, and through self-inter-
not having made more of an effort to finish
action make his/her own interpretation
to my full potential. Of course it would be
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74
easier to just do things on time; I create He expressed this disparagingly, which al-
even more stress for myself by not doing so. ways left me feeling inadequate. I began to
But I do not procrastinate in all areas of my see myself as if no matter what I did, noth-
life, only those with which the feelings de- ing would be good enough, and I too, now,
scribed above are associated. That is why I have high expectations of myself that I feel
believe that my lack of self-confidence is a I cannot fulfill. While today I know that
viable explanation for my recurring hin- these feelings are unfounded, his attitude
drance. still had detrimental effects on my overall
The distinction between my making self-esteem. Berger and Luckmann’s phe-
jokes with others and the emotions I face nomenological view stresses that “face-to-
when I am by myself can be described us- face interaction is where the real action is”
ing Erving Goffman’s theory of dramatur- (Wallace and Wolf, 278). Face-to-face inter-
gy in everyday life, or the ways in which action allows me to internalize “knowledge
we present ourselves theatrically, as if on a about myself from others … as in a ‘mirror
stage. All of us seem to play roles of actors response’” (Berger and Luckmann summa-
on an increasingly global stage. “Goffman ry, class handout). Seeing the disappoint-
looks at the ways individuals in their ev- ment and disapproving looks on my
eryday lives present themselves and their father’s face when I brought home an A- in-
activities to others; in particular, he focuses stead of an A, or the distress I received
on impression management, the ways in throughout my high school softball career
which the individual guides and controls are just a few examples. When I internalize
the impressions others form of him or her” what appears to be objectivated rules of
(Wallace and Wolf, 230). When I seem calm school evaluation set in the family as exter-
and collected and joke about my problem nalized by my father, I end up with certain
with procrastination, I am merely trying to perceptions of myself which often turn into
manage the impressions I am giving to oth- self-fulfilling prophecies. If I keep telling
ers on the front stage, so that the audience myself that I will not succeed at certain
that is observing me does not really know tasks, then I am setting myself up for my
the feelings I experience in the back region, own failure. Berger and Luckmann’s “so-
where I experience my anxieties and nega- cial construction of reality theory argues
tive feelings about myself. What I would that whenever individuals engage in inter-
not want to show in the front region are the nalization, they are conforming to the ex-
feelings of embarrassment I experience for pectations of existing social institutions”
both those that know me well and those (Wallace and Wolf, 282). By internalizing
that don’t—since my procrastination often my perceptions of myself through my fa-
leads to a lasting reputation that is not in- ther’s objectivation in what is my primary
dicative of my true capabilities. group of socialization, I am not only con-
When I contemplate as to why I may forming to my father’s expectations of me
have such negative feelings about myself in to do well in school and sports, but I am
the first place, however, I need to examine also conforming to social norms which
the interaction that I had with my parents have been set in society for individuals’ in
growing up. In her essay, “Honor thy Fa- terms of excelling in school and sports.
ther and Mother,” Nancy Chapin states that The kind of interactions I had with my
“parents are transmitters of attitudes that father growing up also illustrates Charles
the child adopts in forming a self image” Horton Cooley’s important concept in the
(Chapin, 47). Undoubtedly with good in- symbolic interactionist sociological per-
tentions, (mainly) my father had unreason- spective: the looking glass self. Cooley de-
able expectations of me throughout my life. fines this concept as being constituted of
75
the following three elements: “the imagina- vious negative “self-feelings” have left
tion of our appearance to the other person; their marks in my mind, influencing my be-
the imagination of his judgment of that ap- havior subconsciously.
pearance; and some sort of self-feeling, Mead stresses the importance of sym-
such as pride or mortification” (Wallace bolic meaning, or, how we create and use
and Wolf, 195). These “mirror” imagina- symbols and attribute subjective meanings
tions, which were reflected back to me to them in our social interactions. As indi-
through my perception of my father’s reac- viduals, we communicate to each other
tions, were more often than not negative. through the use of symbols such as ges-
As Mead states, “Our behavior is seen as re- tures, which are physical indications of a
flexive because we are able to understand predictable action and can stimulate a reac-
and react to what others think and say tion. In a single gesture, we can communi-
about our behavior” (Farganis, 159). Mead cate to another and give meaning to a
also goes further to distinguish between situation without the use of words.
two divisions or phases of the self—the “I” Through the use of symbols we are able to
and the “me.” The “me” is what you are come to our own conclusions, make deci-
given by the outside world, or society—it is sions and act upon them, which give indi-
how others perceive you. The “I” responds viduals control over their own lives as well
to the “me,” and is how you interpret and as the potential for intervention. The ges-
respond to the “me.” My “I” responds to tures I received from my father included
my “me”s negatively because I am con- such things as making sure that I saw him
stantly being given negative messages shaking his head in disgust and walking
about myself through how I interpret and away during the middle of a softball game
internalize my father’s reactions towards while I may have not been having my best
me. This sets the stage for the self-interac- day at pitching. He expressed his ways of
tions that I have with myself—“the internal discouragement through symbols which I
conversations one has with oneself are an had learned were negative reflections—
essential part of the Meadian perspective “gestures thus internalized are significant
because they are the means by which hu- symbols because they have the same mean-
man beings take into account and organize ing for all individual members of a given
themselves for action” (Wallace and Wolf, society or social group, i.e., they respective-
200). Mead’s “most significant insight,” in ly arouse the same attitudes in the individ-
fact, “was his view of human behavior as uals making them that they arouse in the
reflexive, by which he meant that you and I individuals responding to them” (Wallace
think before we act in many of our impor- and Wolf, 203). I can only assume that this
tant activities” (Farganis, 159). When I am was my father’s way of trying to help me
preparing to sit down and write a paper, for do better, but when I needed positive sup-
example, the interaction that I have with port the most, he usually did things which
myself leads me to imagine the negative re- always left me feeling badly about myself
action I would be receiving from my father, because I had learned that his gestures
which in turn, through my negative self-in- were meant to be negative.
teraction, leads to procrastinating tenden- Mead’s concept of symbolic meaning
cies. I then become unmotivated to write and gestures go hand-in-hand with Harold
my paper in fear that whatever the out- Garfinkel’s theory of ethnomethodology.
come I will feel as if I did poorly, and as if Gestures are used to portray meaning as a
doing my best would never be good form of communication, assuming that the
enough anyway. Sometimes I may not be gestures have the same meaning to all indi-
even thinking this out in my head, but pre- viduals involved. Scholars who use eth-
76
nomethodology pay particular attention to well, or those which can be explained
and study the taken for granted elements of through larger-scale interpretations of how
every day life. Some gestures may seem society affects us individually. George
like common sense to certain individuals, Homans, a social exchange theorist who
but if they do not carry the same meaning still focuses on the micro social interac-
for all the individual involved then the tions, explains “social behavior as an ex-
symbolic meaning of what is being con- change of activity … between at least two
veyed—and, more importantly, the com- persons.” (Wallace and Wolf, 307). He goes
munication itself—is lost or misinterpreted. on to set up five propositions, three of
I possibly could have been taking for grant- which I find particularly helpful in explain-
ed what my father was trying to impress ing my troubles with procrastination:
upon me, and that this was his way of
showing his love and encouragement to me (1) the success proposition states
because he wanted me to be the best at that for all actions taken by per-
school and softball. Maybe this was the sons, the more often a particular
way in which his family brought him up, action of a person is rewarded, the
and he was passing that on to me because more likely the person is to per-
those were the ways he learned and knew form that action; (2) the stimulus
for raising children. proposition states that a person is
The film 12 Angry Men can be useful more likely to perform an action in
when we look at Mead and Herbert Blum- which there was the occurrence of
er’s theories. The twelve men in the court- stimuli present where a person’s
room have all been exposed to the same action has been rewarded; and (3)
situation, and yet each comes to their own the aggression-approval proposi-
conclusions about the case. The informa- tion states that when a person’s ac-
tion in the courtroom is processed by each tion does not receive the reward he
individual differently as each of their per- expected, or receives punishment
sonal experiences brought along their own he did not expect, he will be angry;
biases. These biases, stereotypes, and/or he becomes more likely to perform
different experiences led to the inability to aggressive behavior, and results of
relate to people, in this case the convict, on such behavior become more valu-
a personal level. Henry Fonda’s character is able to him (the frustration-aggres-
different because he has a constant aware- sion hypothesis). (Wallace and
ness of what is going on around him, and is Wolf, 306-307)
able to “put himself in the shoes” of anoth-
er individual. Fonda’s ability to resist the Basically stated, people will repeat re-
group’s pressure through his initial vote warding actions and avoid actions for
against the guilty verdict pressured every- which they are punished. In my case, I was
one to “take on the role of the other” and looking more for emotional rewards and
come to a rational conclusion about the positive reinforcement, but repeatedly was
case. not given one. Randall Collins has sug-
Up until this point, I have been trying gested that rational choice theory should
to explain my issues with procrastination take the approach of “emotions rather than
through microsociological perspectives, or material rewards as the primary force driv-
those that are concerned mainly with one- ing human actions. What he labels ‘emo-
on-one encounters. But there are some tional energy’ can be seen as a continuum,
macrosociological perspectives which can from confidence, enthusiasm, and happi-
certainly get to the root of my behaviors as ness through to depression and gloom”
77
(Wallace and Wolf, 365). If we relate this to view him; he was initially embarrassed by
the interactions which I had with my father, his son’s dancing. We can see how mac-
it can be seen that my father’s reactions to rosocial factors such as class and gender
my performance in both school and sports stereotypes affected Billy’s growing up.
always led me to feel as if I were being pe- When Billy’s father intervened, Billy began
nalized and reprimanded even when I tried losing his concentration, and became frus-
my best. Therefore, it would make sense trated and angry—even briefly giving up
that one would not want to repeat actions his dreams of ballet. To this day I have these
that are punishable. I was not rewarded same feelings. Although I quit softball be-
emotionally for my performance as a stu- fore I started college, I have struggled with
dent or a pitcher; instead I was repeatedly completing schoolwork for years because I
disciplined, leading to the lowering of my fear persistent failure. Unlike Billy’s father,
self-esteem. my father never realized how his behavior
I can relate a lot to the main character, was oppressive, despite his good inten-
Billy, in the film Billy Elliott, as I am all too tions. Robert Merton’s distinction between
familiar with the experience of an authori- manifest and latent functions may some-
tarian father. My father became very in- what apply here, as the manifest function of
volved early on and throughout my high my father’s efforts in helping me served the
school softball passion, and soon enough latent function (or, in this case, dysfunc-
wanted me to succeed and nothing other tion) of inhibiting my school work.
than the best was good enough. As a pitch- I found interesting studies which
er, I practiced everyday, and I could not get linked authoritarian parenting to the per-
involved in any other activities. I wanted to sonality development of daughters in gen-
participate in drama but was not allowed eral, and particularly the predisposition to
to, since my father did not think this activi- procrastination in female adolescents. The
ty would not be as valuable to me as sports. characteristics of the types of parents which
This assigned value was a direct reflection lead to low self-esteem, depression, and
of how society viewed, in this case, playing procrastination in daughters were very
a sport versus being a drama kid. “Homans similar to those of my own. For example,
uses the assumption that people value ap- fathers which tended to be hostile and were
proval to explain how conformity is created judged as authoritarian had daughters who
and maintained in informal groups” (Wal- claimed low self-esteem (Ferrari & Olivette,
lace and Wolf, 315). It became all about 963). The research indicates that parental
competition and making an impression on authority has an impact on their child’s ac-
other people. Peter Blau, a major social ex- ademic performance. “A growing body of
change theorist, also “emphasizes the im- literature suggests that chronic decisional
portance in social exchange of ‘impression procrastination may be a maladaptive per-
management,’ or how people present sonality tendency … A cognitive anteced-
themselves to others. (Wallace and Wolf, ent of performance delay, decisional
329). When Billy was found to be taking procrastination, or indecision, is said to be
ballet classes instead of going to boxing a coping pattern used to deal with decision-
classes, his father insisted on his going to making situations perceived as stressful”
boxing and never to ballet classes again— (Ferrari & Olivette, 963). It is also noted that
even though Billy had a natural talent for while procrastination can be related to low
ballet. His father reacted as such partly be- self-esteem, it is not associated with lack of
cause of the stereotypes associated with intelligence. In a study, “46 procrastinators
boys participating in ballet, and also be- compared with 52 nonprocrastinators
cause of the ways in which others would claimed lower self-esteem, greater public
78
self-consciousness and social anxiety, and a spending beyond their means so that they
stronger tendency toward self-handicap- are perceived as middle-class, or better off
ping” (Ferrari, 455). I was similarly not in- than they really are. I am very much against
vited to be part of decision-making; to this consumerism, whereas I have noticed my
day I have difficulties with effective deci- own family to be very much involved in
sion-making. impressing others with the wealth that they
I have been realizing recently that over accumulate. I believe that this drives peo-
time I have learned to use avoidance as al- ple further and further apart, and will be
most a coping mechanism. As with procras- devastating for individuals and society in
tination, which is really just a way of the end. I do not have the same ideals as my
avoiding the present, I avoid confrontation family in this regard—and am therefore
of any kind because I no longer want to ex- viewed as “deviant” in a way—because I
perience negative self-feelings that I associ- do not strive to consume and therefore
ate with the interaction that I had with my project the idea that I am or seek to be
father. It is expected that “further research wealthy. They probably worry that I will be
will provide evidence for persistent pro- viewed negatively by society—or perhaps
crastination as a personality disorder that they do not want to be viewed negatively
includes anxiety, avoidance, and a fear of themselves.
evaluation of ability.” (Ferrari, 455) Talcott Parsons’s functionalist theory
I see my family’s behavior and atti- emphasizes the process of socialization,
tudes as a direct result of society’s views “where societal values are internalized by a
and values. I would consider my family to society’s members” (Wallace and Wolf, 27).
be fairly well off and very much involved Parsons’s views on pattern variables, or
in our capitalist economy. I, on the other “variables which represent a problem or di-
hand, have found useful Marx’s ideas and lemma that must be solved by the actor be-
critique of capitalism. Marx believed that fore the action can take place” (Wallace and
“individuals cannot reach their full poten- Wolf, 32), can also be applied to my own is-
tial as human beings because they are re- sues. The first pattern variable is between
stricted by the relationships in which they ascription and achievement, or quality ver-
are enmeshed” (Hurst, 12). This then leads sus performance. Modern society is sup-
to alienation from others and one’s own posed to help people base their actions on
potentials. This is very much a result of achievement rather than ascribed qualities
dominant ideologies, or beliefs which re- they are born with. This means that I am
flect the interests of dominant classes and supposed to be judged by others (such as
groups in society. Marx also believed that my family) more by what I am supposed to
“people behave the way they do because of “achieve” in life, than who I am. Another
the nature of their involvement in econom- pattern variable that applies here is affec-
ic relationships” (Hurst, 12). Capitalism is tivity versus affective neutrality, which re-
the driving force of our everyday lives, as quires from individuals in modern life to
the obsessive search for the “American maintain emotional detachment and neu-
Dream,” defined in terms of materialistic trality in the conduct of their social tasks.
goals and values, has become more and basically on whether or not an individual
more a goal for individuals and society as a will expect emotional gratification in the re-
whole. In each of the other films viewed in lationship. Lastly, the collectivity-self pat-
class—Affluenza and The Big One—we are tern variable directs us in modern life to
able to see numerous examples of just how seek self-interests in contrast to collective
the materialistic culture affects us as a and communal bond characterizing tradi-
whole and as individuals. People now are tional social life. A “functioning” capital-
79
ism then tends to favor self-interested, and developing my own individuality that
over-rationalizing, over-achievers in mod- my father really began cracking down on
ern life, disregarding who they are, what me and we grew more and more distant. I
they feel, and their social bonds. These all have always felt as if my voice was never
are macrosocial factors that can influence heard or, if heard, was rejected. I quickly
individuals’ actions, such as those of my fa- became afraid to share my values and opin-
ther or myself, depending on whether and ions with others because of the fear of being
how we internalize and accept them judged and not taken seriously. This is be-
through the process of our socializations. cause my morals and beliefs were different
We do not have to accept such social in- than those of my family. I felt as if my opin-
fluences, however, even if we are labeled as ions were never validated and that my indi-
deviant as a result. Robert Merton’s theory viduality and independence was
of deviance treats anomie as “a discontinu- discouraged. I developed ideas of my own
ity between cultural goals and the legiti- and acted not in accordance with the soci-
mate means available for reaching them” etal norms that my father tried to pass on to
(Wallace and Wolf, 56). He arrives at five his children. As Kristy Canfield states in her
approaches to goals, means and adapta- essay, “Repairing the Soul: Matching Inner
tions which help to explain the different with Outer Beauty” (2002), “‘The grass is
types of deviance. “Merton chose to use a greener on the other side’ until one takes
plus sign (+) to indicate acceptance of the the initiative to search within one’s self for
goal of monetary success or the means to improvement. Oppression is a social con-
the goal, and he used a minus sign (-) to in- struct of this society but ultimately our so-
dicate the rejection (or unavailability) of the cial standing depends on our will to rise
goal or means to it” (Wallace and Wolf, 56). above others’ actions and words” (20). As a
The results of each of the available options result of feeling “oppressed” by my family,
leads to five modes of adaptation: (1) con- I may have turned to procrastination as a
formity; (2) innovation; (3) ritualism; (4) way of controlling something in my own
retreatism; and (5) rebellion, all of which life—I can choose to fail instead of being as-
are actually treated as forms of deviance by signed failure.
Merton. This can be applied to Erin in the But the right answer to my dilemma
film Erin Brockovich, because she was should be to resist and set myself free from
viewed as a “deviant” by those with whom the social pressures exerted by my family,
she worked because of the clothes she and thus act according to my own con-
chose to wear; yet, she resisted the social science. “Liberation is not simply a possi-
pressures to change and went on to be suc- bility, but a necessity for humanity. It is the
cessful in her endeavors. unity of these capacities of critical reflection
Although it was never the case, I was and practical action in the organism … that
and still am seen as “rebellious,” “deviant,” actualizes a fully human potential; any one-
or as someone who does things just to hurt sidedness either way would bring about
my family. This is because I, as an individ- only ‘verbalism’ on one hand, or ‘activism’
ual, do not necessarily accept the things on the other—both equally regarded by
that I was taught and brought up with. I Freire as being deviations from the path of
come from a conservative family, which is humanization” (Tamdgidi, 4). Looking at
not open and accepting to new ideas, my behavior of procrastination in this new
whereas I am very liberal, and an activist way has shown me a solution. I am now be-
for causes that I feel passionately about. It ginning to understand the reason why I feel
was around the time when I was getting old so negatively about myself. I need to look
enough to have my own ideas, opinions, in a new way at myself in the context of my
80
family and society, and thereby change the
course of my previous actions. This paper
has already been a new journey of under-
standing myself. I never conceived of the
reasons why I procrastinated. Knowing
this, I am able to see a solution in the end,
where I am able to change my own behav-
ior to meet my own needs.
REFERENCES
Farganis, James. (2004). Readings in Social The-
ory: The Classic Tradition to Post-Modern-
ism. Fourth Edition. Boston: McGraw Hill
Inc.
Ferrari, Joseph, R. Compulsive procrastination:
some self-reported characteristics. Psycholog-
ical Reports, April 1991 v 68 n2 p455(4).
Ferrari, Joseph, R.; Olivette, Michael, J. Percep-
tions of parental control and the development
of indecision among late adolescent females.
Adolescence, Winter 1993, v28, n112
p963(8).
Farganis, J. (2000). Readings in Social Theory: The
Classic Tradition to Post-Modernism. Third
edition. McGraw Hill College Divison.
Tamdgidi, H. Mohammad. (2004). Freire Meets
Gurdjieff and Rumi: Towards the Pedagogy of
the Oppressed and Oppressing Selves.
Department of Sociology: Umass Boston.
Wallace, R and Wolf, A. (1999). Contemporary
Sociological Theory: Expanding the Classical
Tradition. Fifth Edition. New Jersey: Pren-
tice hall.
Films:
“Affluenza”. (1997). Bullfrog Films
“Billy Elliot”. (2000). Universal Pictures.
“The Big One”. (1999). Miramax Home Enter-
tainment.
“The Matrix”. (1999). Warner Brothers.
“Twelve Angry Men”. (1957). MGM.
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