Table Of ContentNational Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
National Space Agency of Ukraine
Radar Techniques and Facilities
for On-Line Remote Sensing of the Earth
from Aerospace Carriers
Edited by
Academician of the NASU S.N. Konyukhov
Corresponding Member of the NASU V.I. Dranovsky
Dr. V.N. Tsymbal
Translated by
V.I.Soroka
Kharkov
2010
The Monograph
Radar Techniques and Facilities for On-Line Remote Sensing of the Earth from Aerospace
Carriers
The present book is a carefully arranged summary of engineering and scientific
achievements resulting from the research efforts and practical applications associated with the
development and testing of different radar systems for on-line remote sensing of the Earth's
environment. These systems were installed both aboard the EOS "Cosmos-1500/Okean/Sich"
and a number of aircrafts.
A special emphasis was placed upon physicotechnical specificities and data
acquisition potentialities of these systems, particularly, their calibration characteristics and data
processing techniques. Scientific and methodical problems associated with a real-time retrieval
of data on the state of the World Ocean surface, ice and land have been widely discussed. A
number of specific examples of thematic interpretation and practical use of radar data are cited.
The book is intended for these who are interested in exploring the natural resources
from space, meteorology, environmental protection, geocryology radiophysics and electronics. It
is also hoped that it will be of much benefit in terms of having appropriate qualifications for
these particular businesses.
Reviewers:
Academician of the NASU L.N. Litvinenko, Director of the Radioastronomical Institute of the
NASU
Dr. O.P. Fedorov, Director of the Space Research Institute of the NASU and NSAU
Corresponding Member of the NASU V.I. Lyalko, Director of the Scientific Centre for
Aerospace Research of the Earth of the NASU
Dr. V.K. Volosyuk, Prof. of the N.Ye. Shukovsky National Aerospace University (NAU)
"Kharkov Aviation Institute".
Autors
A.G. Boyev (§1.1, §1.2); V.B. Yefimov (§1.3); V.N. Tsymbal, S.Ye. Yatsevich (§1.4); I.A.
Kalmykov, V.N. Tsymbal (§2); A.S. Kurekin, O.L. Yemelyanov, S.S. Kavelin, Yu.D. Saltykov,
O.Yu. Kulilovsky, A.M. Popel (§2.1); A.Ya. Matveyev, V.N. Tsymbal, A.P. Yevdokimov, V.V.
Kryzhanovsky, D.M. Bychkov (§2.2); O.V. Sytnik (§2.3); A.Ya. Matveyev, S.Ye. Yatsevich
(§2.4); A.S. Gavrilenko (§2.5); V.N. Tsymbal (§§3.1-3.6); V.B. Yefimov (§§4.1-4.3); V.B.
Yefimov, I.A. Kalmykov (§4.4); V.N. Tsymbal, I.A. Kalmykov (§§4.6, 4.7); A.G. Boyev, A.Ya.
Matveyev, V.N. Tsymbal (§5.1); A.Ya. Matveyev (§5.2); A.Ya. Matveyev, V.N. Tsymbal (§5.3)
S.E. Yatsevich, I.A. Kalmykov (§6.1); V.N. Tsymbal (§§6.2, 6.3); V.N. Tsymbal, A.S. Kurekin,
A.S. Gavrilenko, A.Ya. Matveyev, D.M. Bychkov (§7.1); V.N. Tsymbal, A.S. Kurekin, A.S.
Gavrilenko (§7.2); S.Ye. Yatsevich (Appendix 1); A.P. Yevdokimov, V.V. Kryzhanovsky
(Appendix 2).
The authors who have readily consented to make valuable contributions to this book
constitute an expert team of researchers and design engineers who are currently with the
following institutions: Kalmykov Center for Radiophysical Sensing of the Earth of the NASU
and NSAU, A.Ya. Usikov Institute for Radiophysics and Electronics of the NASU,
Radioastronomical Institute of the NASU and the Design Office "Yuzhnoye".
UDC 621.396.96'06
R13 Radar Techniques and Facilities for On-Line Remote Sensing of the Earth from
Aerospace Carriers / A.G. Boyev, V.B. Yefimov, V.N. Tsymbal at al.; edited by S.N.
Konyukhov, V.I. Dranovsky, V.N. Tsymbal. – Kharkov (Ukraine): Publishing house
Sheynina O.V. – 2010. – 428 p.
ISBN 978-966-1536-57-8
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD........................................................................ 5
CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS AND DISTINCTIVE
FEATURES OF RADAR TECHNIQUES AND FACILITIES OF REMOTE
SENSING OF THE EARTH……………………………….................................. 14
Introduction............................................................................................................ 14
§ 1.1 Radio wave scattering by sea surface………............................................... 16
§ 1.2 The influence of surface-active films on radio wave scattering by sea
surface .......................................................................................................... 26
§ 1.3 Microwave radio wave sea ice scattering …………………........................ 42
§ 1.4 Features of land surface, vegetation and soil scattering at microwave
band.................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER 2. AEROSPACE RADARS OF ON-LINE REMOTE SENSING OF
THE EARTH…………………………………………………..…………..... 86
§2.1 The basic operating features of the EOS "Cosmos-1500" SLR..................... 104
§2.2 Airborne radar complexes for remote sensing of the Earth........................... 110
§2.3 The criterion for informative characteristic properties offered by
remote sensing radar systems........................................................................ 130
§2.4 Calibration features of air- and spaceborne SLR and SAR systems for on-
line environmental monitoring of the Earth………..................................... 137
§2.5 The distinctive features of on–line data processing aboard the satellite -
based SLR of the “Cosmos-1500” type and airborne multifrequency radar 152
complex “MARS”………………………………………………….............
CHAPTER 3. ON-LINE RADAR REMOTELY SENSED AEROSPACE
MONITORING OF THE WORLD OCEAN…………………………................. 179
§3.1 Monitoring of the hazardous processes in the ocean-air system…………… 179
§3.2 Determination of the near-sea surface wind field parameters from radar
images of the ocean surface…..……………………………........................ 197
§3.3 Tropical cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons….................................................... 206
§3.4 Comparison between remotely sensed radar data and in-situ measurements.
Estimation of validity of definition of the near-sea surface wind field
parameters from radar data………….......................................... 215
§3.5 Widespread effects of hazardous atmospheric processes in coastal areas and
inland seas …………………………………......................................... 219
§3.6 Use of multifrequency radar data for monitoring of the aroused sea surface
state............................................................................................................... 226
CHAPTER 4. ON-LINE RADAR SEA ICE MONITORING. ENSURING THE
NAVIGATION SAFETY IN ICE CONDITIONS............................................... 228
§ 4.1 Experimental investigations into the signatures of microwave sea ice
backscattering …………….………………................................................. 228
§ 4.2 The linkage between the characteristics of microwave radio signals
scattered by sea ice and its physical-chemical and electrophysical
properties…………………………………………………………………. 240
§ 4.3 Methodical features of thematic processing of the spaceborne SLR
information on the ice sheets…………..………………………………...... 246
§ 4.4 Remote sea ice diagnostics using spaceborne SLR facilities…..…….......... 248
§ 4.5 Particular features of ice cover remote sensing by multifrequency radar
techniques…………………………………………………………............. 260
§ 4.6 Rescue operations aimed at salving the cargo vessel fleet using the data
from the EOS "Cosmos-1500" SLR............................................................. 265
4
§ 4.7 On the arrangements that were made to salvage the research/expedition
vessel "Mikhail Somov" perilously jammed in the Antarctic ice…............ 269
CHAPTER 5. ON-LINE DETECTION OF MANIFEST SIGNATURES OF
SURFACE AND INTERNAL SEA PROCESSES USING RADAR
TECHNIQUES....................................................................................................... 272
§ 5.1 Investigation into the inhomogeneities caused by oil product spills............ 273
§ 5.2 Studies of inhomogeneities arising in sea currents ……………………...... 288
§ 5.3 Studies into manifestation of internal and seismic waves on the sea surface
…………………………………………………………………….. 296
CHAPTER 6. ON-LINE RADAR MONITORING OF LAND............................ 298
§6.1. Determination of agrometeorological properties and soil moisture from
space radar images at the autumn-winter season…………………………. 298
§6.2 The study of the manifest indications of geological formations and mineral
deposits using multifrequency remote sensing radars.................................. 316
§6.3 Description of subsurface formation detection procedures using
multifrequency sensing tools........................................................................ 320
CHAPTER 7. ON THE ADVANCES IN THE DESIGN AND
DEVELOPMENT OF RADAR SYSTEM FOR ON-LINE MONITORING OF
THE EARTH'S ENVIRONMENT........................................................................ 327
§7.1 Description of the initial results achieved in the operation of the airborne
remote sensing complex, otherwise referred to as the "ARSC-30".............. 327
§7.2 The prospects for further development of spaceborne radar facilities for on-
line remote sensing of the Earth in Ukraine. In lieu of the conclusion………….. 338
References….......................................................................................................... 341
APPENDIX 1. INTEGRATION OF DATA ON AEROSPACE RADAR
SENSING AND IN-SITU MEASUREMENTS INDUCTED IN NATURAL
TESTING AREAS……………………………………………………………… 356
References to the Appendix 1 .......……................................................................ 391
APPENDIX 2. FEATURES OF THE ANTENNA SYSTEMS OF EOS
PERSPECTIVE SPACE RADARS....................................................................... 393
§1. The high resolution antenna system of the space SAR with the on-line beam
control............................................................................................................. 393
§2. The multipurpose antenna system of multimode space side looking
radar................................................................................................................ 412
References to the Appendix 2............................................................................... 425
5
Dedicated to the memory of
Anatoly Ivanovich Kalmykov,
the eminent scientist
FOREWORD
Dear reader,
The book you are now holding in your hands is dedicated to radar techniques and
facilities for on-line remote sensing of the Earth. We would like to give some brief
explanations to those who are actually getting interested in this aspect of human endeavor,
which is of certain value and captivates one’s imagination. Remote sensing is a sort of
technology. To be more specific, it is a combination of methods and ways of extracting
information on a great variety of man-made and natural objects phenomena and processes
occurring at a certain distance when there is no immediate contact with them.
At present some useful information on remote sensing applications can be gained
from distinctive features of different-in-length electromagnetic (EM) waves reflection both
from objects to be studied and from those of intrinsic radiation of EM waves by these
particular objects.
The remote sensing systems based upon artificial radiation and reception of EM
waves reflected from the objects being explored that are referred to as “active”. They
include, above all, radar, lidar (optical wave bands, in most cases, with adjacent UV and IR
regions) and sonar (or sound) wave bands. The systems that are exclusively based upon
receiving EM waves radiated (or re-reflected upon irradiation by some natural illumination
source like, say, the Sun) by the objects under study are called “passive”. Among those are
the photographic systems intended for registering the reflected solar radiation as well as the
various types of radiometers having different wavelengths. The spectrum of EM waves in
remote sensing applications is rather wide. It varies from the shortest X-ray wavelengths of
10-12 m and UV optical-range waves to ultrasound and acoustic wavelengths of more than
104 m.
Some general concept of EM radiation bands used in remote sensing is depicted
by Fig.1 [1], in which EM wave spectra are shown to be radiated by a black body at its
different temperatures and by the Sun as well. Here a comparison is made between the
spectral characteristics of EM radiation transmitted by the Earth atmosphere and the EM
wave bands utilized by different remote sensing systems.
6
Fig.1.1. EM wave spectra radiated by a black body at its different
temperatures and by the Sun; spectral characteristics of EM radiation
transmitted by the Earth atmosphere and the EM wave bands utilized by
different remote sensing systems
It is clearly seen that one could hardly find all portions of EM wave spectrum to
be equally suitable for remote sensing applications. We will give the information relevant
to the above Figure in subsequent sections.
Needless to bring home to anyone living at this modern age the paramount
importance of remote sensing technology, to those who think it normal to see for
themselves the tangible results it yields every day, especially when televised weather
forecasts are presented. This is most convincingly evidenced by the wide-ranging
applications of remote sensing in every areas of human endeavor, by the efforts and
resources put into it by highly developed and developing countries round the world. Most
of the resources and allocations are mainly focused on air-and spaceborne remote sensing
systems
And no wonder that it is exactly the aerospace facilities for remote sensing of the
Earth (RSE) that are basically intended to resolve the issues of global monitoring of the
processes occurring on the Earth and which are in fact challenging to get them under
control using ground-based facilities only.
A wide variety of problems that have to be addressed by the present-day
aerospace remote sensing facilities ranges from military reconnaissance operations to
prevention of natural, technogenic and environmental catastrophes, rescue of personnel,
mineral prospecting in any parts of the Earth, to name but a few.
An incomparable role is played by the remote sensing facilities while observing
the hard-to-reach and outlying areas of the globe, i.e. deserts, vast oceanic expanses, Arctic
and Antarctic regions. This diversity of problems to be tackled requires that remote sensing
air- and spaceborne facilities be dedicated to serving specific purposes. In other words,
priorities should be given to selecting the types and physical principles of their operation,
their parameters (in particular, swaths, spatial resolution, the data processing period and
presentation of data, the mode of delivering the retrieved data to users, etc.) in strict
7
compliance with specific features of issues being solved. In fact, it does not seem to be
difficult to make sure that various problems are optimally handled by selecting totally
different sets of remote sensing facilities.
As an example, consider one of the gravest issues like natural catastrophes. The
most calamitous natural phenomena are the so-called tropical cyclones or, in other words,
typhoons and hurricanes. They possess a formidable breakout force. The wind speed in
their epicenter may at times be over 150 km/h. They are bound to cause horrifying ocean
waves and are attended by torrential rains, thereby leaving flooded areas, landslides, etc. in
their trail. They sweep over the areas for a distance of hundreds of kilometers and are
capable of traveling along complicated trajectories at high speeds that often reach 100
km/h. A huge number of innocent people are often victimized by tropical cyclones,
thousands of vessels find themselves sunken and heavy material damages are inflicted. In
spite of the great engineering potential of today all these hazardous events cannot but pose a
colossal threat to numerous countries around the world. It is quite evident that the measures
taken to minimize the aftermaths of tropical hurricanes may well be effective provided one
should take care of their timely detection using the reliable data on their imminent danger,
their direction and the speed with which they travel. Of course, these data are to be made
available in good time and on a 24-hour basis and keep one informed about the atmospheric
processes over the vast oceanic expanses stretching for tens of millions of square
kilometers, where these hurricanes tend to originate. This problem can hardly be tackled
without having to fall back upon the wide–swath spaceborne global remote sensing systems
which are supposed to operate continually, round-the-clock, because the movement of
hurricanes is never discontinued night and day.
The data thus obtained should be promptly dispatched to a large number of users
ranging from the special state-run emergency services that organize and coordinate rescue
and evacuation operations in the hardest-hit areas to the captains of ships and numerous
owners of small-size motor boats and yachts which might to get caught in hurricane-
affected zones. The rate at which the radar data are delivered to those who may fall victims
to those elemental events is very essential in terms of salvaging dwellings and properties.
Therefore the best solution would be to process the remote sensing data on a real-time
basis, directly onboard the man-made satellites of the Earth. Apart from the onboard radio
channels being utilized to give operational warnings of emergency situations in the open
sea, the data retrieved could be transferred, say, through the APT standard channels. The
receiving stations of these channels are of significant current use. Thousands of these
stations are being run all over the world.
Thus, even if some features of tropical cyclones, typhoons and hurricanes are
given a cursory glance, one is practically able to specify the basic requirements for
spaceborne systems which are intended for their operational monitoring, i.e. for their
prompt detection, diagnosis of their parameters, monitoring of their development and
movement. Basically this implies the global surveying of the ocean surface, the capability
of daily (regardless of light conditions) detection of the most active processes in the air-sea
system in their early stages of development with a subsequent monitoring of their dynamics
and diagnosis of parameters. This also highlights the capability of processing remote
sensing data directly onboard a spacecraft on a real-time basis and a swift transfer of data to
a great number of users.
Meanwhile, when analyzing other environmentally related processes such as
degradation of fertile soils, desertification or the causes behind deforestation in many parts
of the world, one has to come up with totally different remote sensing facilities. Although
these processes are of global nature, they tend to develop gradually, their time range
running into decades.
8
In others words, the areas susceptible to these hazardous events can be surveyed
at a slow rate, stepwise, and no operational mode is then needed. These particular processes
reveal themselves in a great diversity (for instance, in changing the color index of forest
tree foliage, the growth of frees, their structure, the composition and color of soil covers,
compactness of grassed soils, etc.). Therefore, different remote sensing facilities are needed
to monitor their dynamics and there is no point in hastily selecting optimal surveying
conditions to be applied to each of these facilities. The raw data retrieved from this type of
sensing can be transferred to a limited number of research centers for subsequent integrated
processing of data to be utilized after a little while.
The disastrous events also differ in the scopes of their manifest effects produced
by elemental processes, in the rate at which they gather their momentum, etc. For instance,
the oil spilled across the sea surface is initially spreading fast in response to the surface
tension forces and the due to the displacement of sea currents and wind velocities.
Therefore the spaceborne remote sensing facilities taken alone, on frequent occasion,
appear to be rather insufficient to provide effective monitoring of the above technogenic
catastrophes. It is then indispensable to make use of airborne remote sensing systems
capable of updating the information on how the hazardous events develop within a short
span of time by means of repeated observations.
It stands to reason that it is impossible to give meticulous attention to a great
diversity of remote sensing systems and techniques in a single book. Here we will consider
the specific features of on-line remote sensing facilities involving the use of aerospace
carriers, and a special emphasis will be placed exclusively upon satellite-based radar
systems. The reasons why the afore-mentioned radar systems are worthy of note are as
follows.
First, they offer the optimum performance in terms of meeting the requirements
for a speedy acquisition of data irrespective of light conditions, the time of day, cloud
canopy, etc.
Second, they allow one not only to keep track of how different natural and
technogenic catastrophes manifest themselves, but also to promptly evaluate most essential
parameters relevant to those phenomena and events which are most likely to be responsible
for the dreadful consequences they entail. Take, for example, the near-sea surface wind
velocity, the torrential rains brought about by tropical cyclones, age gradations and
respective thickness’ of sea ice, the oil film thickness on the sea surface, etc. To put it in a
nutshell, basically it is difficult to overestimate the importance of the operational
capabilities of remote sensing radar facilities. We will dwell upon them in subsequent
sections.
Third, the remote sensing experts of Ukraine have a backlog of expertise
associated with efficient developments of low-cost but high-performance aerospace remote
sensing systems and are widely experienced in their applications.
In the light of what was stated above we think it unfair to leave the foregoing
description of the possibilities offered by remote sensing radar facilities totally unfounded.
Therefore we would like to cite just one illustrative example so as to convince our readers
of the excellent benefits derived from remote sensing applications. Imagine the following
situation: October 1983, the northern coast of the Chukot region, the polar, dark nights with
severe frosts and blizzards fall upon this snowy desolate area. Also as well as every year a
convoy of 22 vessels ploughs its way through the Arctic ice to the port of Pevek when
following the well-trodden route. Normally the vessels are loaded with provisions, fuel and
other supplies the Chukot inhabitants need so badly. The polar explorers, geologists,
builders and their families will never endure the rigours of a dreadful arctic winter if they
run dramatically short of life-support supplies at the most critical, hardest period of time. If
one wishes to sound ironical, the convoy was “a bit” late.
9
It was held up for about a month because of some typical hitches in preparatory
operations. Everybody hoped for the best. But, helas, the outcome turned out to be
deplorable. All of a sudden the heavy masses of multiyear near-polar ice floes started
moving southward, and the convoy got hipped in the Longa strait to the south of the
Wrangel Island.
And soon the most powerful atomic ice-breakers were seen to be heading for the
distressed vessels. But the multiyear ice, whose thickness was 5 meters and up, was a really
“hard nut to crack”. In the long run everything ended up in a tragedy. One vessel was
mercilessly crushed by the ice and sank and the other was badly damaged. The icebreakers
were strenuously attempting to get through; even the propeller screws have broken down
but to no avail. A menace hanging over that area with a population numbering hundreds of
thousands might become a grim reality.
The high-ranking officials of the Former Soviet Union (FSU) felt gravely
concerned about the fate of the convoy in question. The top executives who were
responsible for the safe and effective navigation in the Arctic region were closely watching
the developments. The loss of the ships whose cargoes were estimated at over 8 billion $
dollar might be thought of as an enormous tragedy and, should it happen, new challenging
problems would come cropping up and that would incur additional expenses. In particular,
thousands of people would have to be airlifted from those far-flung areas of Chukot, since
they were on the verge of being abandoned with no provisions and fuel supplies so
necessary to keep the region infrastructure going under those unbearably severe conditions.
The data provided by the airborne ice reconnaissance were far from encouraging. It seemed
like the ice wilderness was never-ending with huge floes stretching far beyond the horizon,
which was in fact impossible to cut through.
Just at that time the leading experts of the FSU State Committee for
Hydrometeorology (“Goskomgidromet”) of the USSR), the “Yuzhnoye Design Office and
the Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics (Kharkov) of the Academy of Sciences of
Ukraine were actively involved in preparations for the planned orbital testing of the remote
sensing radiophysical equipment installed onboard the “Cosmos-1500” satellite that was
launched in September, 28, 1983. This experimental complex was designed and developed
by the Ukrainian researchers and experts of the IRE (NASU); Special Design Office of the
IRE NASU and the Special Design Office Marine Hidrophysical Institute (NASU) under
the supervision of Prof. A.I. Kalmykov. The key component of the entire remote sensing
system was the side-looking radar (SLR), which played a dominant role.
Here it would be worthwhile to touch upon the background of development and
launching of the “Cosmos-1500” satellite carrying the first-ever homemade spaceborne
remote sensing SLR. The whole story appears to be exciting and leaves one greatly amazed.
There was a lot of controversy and arguments over this project, which occasionally stirred
up strong feelings, sparked off heated discussions to such an extent that the whole thing
looked very much like a “Whodunit”. We will take up that story and give it a careful
consideration later on.
Setting aside all the arguments, all sorts of statements and reasoning that were
prevalent at that time, the main thing remained extremely essential: the SLR “Cosmos-
1500” had been engineered using the physical principles of radio wave scattering by the
aroused sea surface and, more importantly, these effects were revealed and studied by the
Ukrainian radio physicists and the entire remote sensing arrangement was primarily
developed by the Ukrainian experts only, and it is this particular contribution of the home
team of engineers and researchers that caused a great deal of displeasure on the part of
some opponents.
And it is precisely at that crucial spell of a trying time when the cargo ships
bound for the Chukotski Peninsular (Chukot) were in distress and on the point of sinking,
10
and everybody nerved themselves to stand physical and emotional strains that the SLR
long-term testing was to start as planned. The trial procedure envisaged the radar surveying
of the same, specially chosen, sea surface area near the African coast under the most
diverse conditions, involving the ground-controlled facilities.
In these circumstances Prof. A. I. Kalmykov who was given an unqualified
support by the “Yuzhnoye“ Design Office Managerial group did his best so as to
immediately suspend the scheduled orbital testing of the SLR facility and to allow it to
"zero-in mission" a routine surveying of the ice-bound ships in the Longa strait.
In those years it was next to impossible to act that way because of the strict rules
and regulations existing in the FSU. Those who were well aware of them knew it was
almost inconceivable to reverse the decisions made by the top space executives). Indeed,
the first radar images of this area could effectively show the way to rescue the ice-bound
convoy. If one takes a closer look at these images shown in this book he is bound to see it
for himself. At the same time it just dawned upon the physicists in Kharkov: the disaster
area did seem to be "besieged” by heavy ice near the Northern coast of Chukot. Meanwhile,
at a distance of 100 km to the north of the Wrangel Island there was a vast zone covered
with thin ice (The so-called “polynia, i.e. an unfrozen patch of water in the midst of an ice-
bound sea), which could open the clear way to the long-suffering convoy. The radar images
that had been previously acquired helped to discern the fissures and patches of ice-free
water in heavy multiyear ice oriented southward. These fissures ran along the “polynia”
near the Wrangel Island.
After these unique data had been collected it took several days to make desperate
moves in an effort to get the top managing executives responsible for the Navigation in the
Arctic region (“Sevmorput”) to call their attention to those gruesome developments. And it
was until after the threat to lodge a complaint with the Central Committee of the
Communist Part of the USSR (now FSU) had become a tangible reality, those appeals did
take effect. To be on the safe side, a decision was made to make sure that the SLR space-
borne data were adequate. The aircraft involved in visual ice reconnaissance, which had
hitherto been flying in the vicinity of the convoy and along the Chukot coastline were
searching out the slightest fissures in ice floes, along the traditional route have been
directed northward (to the area spotted by the SLR), right up to the Wrangel Island. To the
greatest surprise of the ice reconnaissance experts who were committed to provide pilotage
operations, the SLR data were ultimately confirmed. As a matter of fact, in the area
detected by the SLR a zone of young ice could be easily seen. True, within several days that
had elapsed since the “polynia” was detected from space, the ice inside it got somewhat
solidified, but fortunately it kept quite suitable for free passage of the convoy. The patches
of ice-free water stretching out as far as that zone were found in the hummocked ice fields.
The convoy promptly altered its course and headed northward.
As the fleet of cargo ships followed the ice-breakers, it soon succeeded in getting
closer to the young ice zone and sailing further on it safely arrived at the port of Pevek in a
few days’ time. Thus, the cargoes being worth 8 $ billion were salvaged and the population
of Chukot could well go on living through the climatic whims of that outlying land. It was
convincingly demonstrated that the spaceborne SLR on the “Cosmos-1500” satellite was
extremely practicable in securing the high-latitude navigation safety.
It should be noted that this assertion is far from groundless. The point is that
most of the leading remote sensing experts in the FSU were vigorously opposed to the
novel development such as the SLR of the “Cosmos-1500” system, since they believed it to
be totally unpromising and frequently insisted that this project be abandoned for good and
all. But those who were seriously anxious to go ahead with the work on creating and
launching the advanced system were on the winning side.
