Koehler AR - Phd thesis TU Delft 2013.pdf - TU Delft Institutional

249 Pages·2013·2.93 MB·English

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Anticipatory Eco-Design Strategies for Smart Textiles
Perspectives on environmental risk prevention
in the development of an emerging technology

Thesis

presented for the degree of doctor
at Delft University of Technology
under the authority of the Rector Magnificus, Professor ir. K.C.A.M. Luyben,
Chairman of the Board for Doctorates
to be defended in public in the presence of a committee

on 30. September 2013 at 15:00 o’clock

by Andreas Ralf KÖHLER

M.Sc. Environmental Management and Policy, Lund University, Sweden
born in Dresden, Germany

I
Anticipatory Eco-Design Strategies for Smart Textiles
Perspectives on environmental risk prevention
in the development of an emerging technology

Proefschrift

ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor
aan de Technische Universiteit Delft,
op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. ir. K.C.A.M. Luyben,
voorzitter van het College voor Promoties,

in het openbaar te verdedigen op 30 september 2013 om 15:00 uur
door

Andreas Ralf KÖHLER

M.Sc. Environmental Management and Policy aan de Lunds Universitet, Zweden
geboren te Dresden, Duitsland
Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotor:
Prof. dr. ir. J.C. Brezet
en de copromotor:
Dr. ir. C.A. Bakker

Samenstelling van de promotiecommissie:
Rector Magnificus Voorzitter
Prof. dr. ir. J.C. Brezet Delft University of Technology, promotor
Dr. ir. C.A. Bakker Delft University of Technology, copromotor
Prof. dr. ir. P. Rem Delft University of Technology
Prof. Dr. M. Decker Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
Prof. L. Van Langenhove Ghent University
Prof. A. Remmen Aalborg Universitet
Dr. Ing. N. Nissen Fraunhofer Institute for Reliability and Microintegration
Prof. dr. I. Horváth Delft University of Technology, reservelid

Anticipatory eco-design strategies for smart textiles
Perspectives on environmental risk prevention in the development of an emerging technology

Andreas R. Köhler
Thesis Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
Design for Sustainability Program publication nr. 24
ISBN 97890-6562-335-5
doi:10.4233/uuid:850be7ae-1f9e-4b3f-b49f-242488bab216

Pictures on front and back covers: A.R. Köhler, Future-Shape GmbH
Printed by Delft Academic Press

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Copyright © by Andreas R. Köhler. All rights reserved . No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without any written per-
mission from the author.
Table of Contents

SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................... VII

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Preamble .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Background ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.1. Innovation in the field of emerging technologies ..................................................... 3
1.2.3. Innovations in the field of smart textiles .................................................................. 4
1.2.4. Policy frameworks and innovation strategies ........................................................... 7
1.3. Environmental risks of emerging technologies ............................................................... 9
1.3.1. Lessons learnt from innovations of the past ............................................................. 9
1.3.2. Previous research findings ..................................................................................... 10
1.4. Risk preventative innovation strategies ......................................................................... 12
1.4.1. Prevention as a strategy of ex ante risk treatment .................................................. 12
1.4.2. The role of design in risk prevention ..................................................................... 13
1.5. Environmentally conscious design as a risk prevention approach ................................ 18
1.5.1. State of the art in eco-design .................................................................................. 18
1.5.2. Life cycle assessment as a decision support instrument in eco-design .................. 22
1.6. Framework and methods of research ............................................................................ 24
1.6.1. Objectives and research question ........................................................................... 24
1.6.2. Methodological framework of the research ........................................................... 25
1.6.3. Research methods ................................................................................................... 26
1.7. Structure and outline of this dissertation ....................................................................... 26

2 Expected Environmental Impacts of Pervasive Computing ........................................... 29
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 29
2.2. Approach of the Study ................................................................................................... 30
2.3. Assessment of the environmental effects of Pervasive Computing .............................. 32
2.3.1. First-Order Effects .................................................................................................. 32
2.3.2. Second- and Third-Order Effects ........................................................................... 40
2.4. Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 46
2.5. References ..................................................................................................................... 47

3 Prospective impacts of electronic textiles on recycling and disposal .............................. 51
3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 51
3.2. Description of E-textiles ................................................................................................ 53
3.2.1.Current Innovation Trends ...................................................................................... 53
3.2.2. Market Perspectives ............................................................................................... 54
3.2.3. Materials and Components used in E-textiles ........................................................ 55
3.3. Estimation of Future E-textile Waste Streams .............................................................. 58
3.3.1. Discussion of the Scenarios .................................................................................... 60
3.4. Recyclability of E-textiles ............................................................................................. 61
3.4.1. E-textiles entering an E-waste Recycling Scheme ................................................. 62
3.4.2. E-textiles entering a Recycling Channel for old Textiles ...................................... 63
3.5. Conclusions and Recommendations .............................................................................. 64
3.6. Supporting Information ................................................................................................. 65
3.7. References ..................................................................................................................... 69

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4 Risk Preventative Innovation Strategies for Emerging Technologies The Cases of
Nano-Textiles and Smart Textiles ......................................................................................... 73
4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 73
4.2. Conceptual Background ................................................................................................ 73
4.2.1. Terminology of risks .............................................................................................. 74
4.2.2. Effects of Uncertainty ............................................................................................ 75
4.3. Methodological approach .............................................................................................. 76
4.4. Case studies ................................................................................................................... 77
4.4.1. Case Study on Nano-textiles .................................................................................. 77
4.4.2. Case Study on Smart Textiles ................................................................................ 81
4.5. Synthesis of Results from the Case Studies .................................................................. 84
4.5.1. EHS/S risks and uncertainty ................................................................................... 84
4.5.2. Current management practice of emerging EHS/S risks ........................................ 85
4.6. Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 86
4.6.1. Challenges for risk management of emerging technologies .................................. 86
4.6.2. Strategies for managing risks during the early innovation phase ........................... 87
4.7. Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 90
4.8. References ..................................................................................................................... 90

5 Challenges for eco-design of emerging technologies: the case of electronic textiles ..... 97
5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 97
5.2 Study set up .................................................................................................................... 98
5.3. About e-textiles ............................................................................................................. 99
5.3.1. Contemporary innovation trends ............................................................................ 99
5.3.2. Expected end-of-life impacts of e-textiles ........................................................... 101
5.4. Implementation of eco-design in the innovation process of e-textiles ........................ 102
5.4.1. Challenges for eco-design of e-textiles ................................................................ 102
5.5. Eco-design strategies for longevity and recyclability of e-textiles ............................. 106
5.5.1. Harnessing the inherent environmental advantages of innovative materials ....... 106
5.5.2. Compatibility standards........................................................................................ 107
5.5.3. Labelling ............................................................................................................... 108
5.6. Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 109
5.7. References ................................................................................................................... 110

6 Conceptual Approach for Life Cycle Assessment of smart textiles .............................. 115
6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 115
6.2. Objectives and framework of research ........................................................................ 118
6.3. Study setup .................................................................................................................. 119
6.4. Literature review ......................................................................................................... 120
6.4.1. Status quo and future perspectives of LCA application in the smart textile sector 120
6.4.2. Status and trend in environmental legislation and standards for smart textiles ... 126
6.5 Survey of LCA needs and demands in smart textiles SME ........................................ 129
6.5.1. Methodology ........................................................................................................ 129
6.5.2. Survey results ....................................................................................................... 131
6.6. Life cycle assessment and eco-design of a textile-based large-area sensor system .... 140
Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 140
6.6.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 140
6.6.2. Description of the sensing floor ........................................................................... 141
6.6.3. LCA of the sensing floor ...................................................................................... 144
6.6.4. Consequences for eco-design of the sensing floor ............................................... 149
6.6.5. Lessons learnt from the LCA application in the SME context ............................. 151
IV
6.7. Concept of a LCA-to-go tool for smart textiles .......................................................... 152
6.7.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 152
1.7.2. Purpose of the tool ................................................................................................ 152
6.7.3. Framework of the LCA-to-go concept development ........................................... 153
6.7.4. Methodological concept ....................................................................................... 160
6.7.5. Parameterised Data Models .................................................................................. 168
6.7.6. Further research .................................................................................................... 170
6.8. Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 171
6.9. References ................................................................................................................... 172

7 Material Scarcity – A Reason for Responsibility in Technology Development and
Product Design ...................................................................................................................... 177
7.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 177
7.2. The material base of modern technology .................................................................... 178
7.3. Review of different interpretations of the material scarcity problem ......................... 180
7.4. Sustainability as a framework of responsible innovation ............................................ 182
7.5.1. Sustainable management of critical materials ...................................................... 184
7.5. The responsibility of technology developers for sustainable material management .. 185
7.5.1. What can technology developers do in practice? ................................................. 186
7.6. Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 187
7.7. Supplementary Information ......................................................................................... 188
7.7.1. Case study 1: Critical elements used in electronic products and ICT .................. 188
7.7.2. Case study 2: Design of smart textiles ................................................................. 190
7.7.3. Case study 3: Application of rare earth elements in energy-efficient lighting ..... 192
7.8. References ................................................................................................................... 194

8 Critical Materials: a Reason for Sustainable Education of Industrial Designers and
Engineers ............................................................................................................................... 199
8.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 199
8.2. The material base of technology ................................................................................. 200
8.3. Stakeholder perspectives on materials ........................................................................ 202
8.4. Discussion ................................................................................................................... 204
8.4.1. Implications for the curriculum of higher education ............................................ 205
8.4.2. Implementation of solutions in education ............................................................ 207
8.5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 207
8.6. References ................................................................................................................... 208

9 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 211
9.1. Answers to the central research question .................................................................... 211
9.2. Synopsis of the research results .................................................................................. 213
9.2.1. Answers to research question Q1 ......................................................................... 213
9.2.2. Answers to research question Q2 ......................................................................... 215
9.2.2. Answers to research question Q3 ......................................................................... 216
9.3. References ................................................................................................................... 218

List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... 224
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... 225
Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................ 227
Short definitions and terms ................................................................................................. 230
Samenvatting in het Nederlands ......................................................................................... 233
List of publications and conference presentations ............................................................ 237
About the author and Acknowledgments ........................................................................... 238
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SUMMARY

High-tech product innovations have led to adverse side effects with respect to environmental
sustainability. The early stage of innovation provides good opportunities to counteract envi-
ronmental risks before they materialise. This dissertation explores anticipatory eco-design
strategies that could help in mitigating prospective environmental risks of smart textiles.
Smart textiles are studied as an example of emerging smart technologies that may become a
part of everyday life in the near future. The main research question of this dissertation is:
“How can environmental risks of emerging technologies be prevented
at an early stage of the innovation process?”
The dissertation encompasses a compilation of published and submitted research papers,
which are preceded by an introductory chapter 1 explaining the analytical framework as well
as the research objectives and the research questions. The papers address different risk aspects
related to smart textiles and discuss risk prevention strategies from the perspectives of sus-
tainable innovation and eco-design.
Chapter 2 examines the anticipated environmental impacts of pervasive computing. This
emerging technology is portrayed as a mega-trend of innovations in the ICT sector, and smart
textiles are considered to be a subset thereof. Two major environmental risks have been iden-
tified: increasing consumption of scarce raw materials combined with increasing amounts of
difficult-to-recycle electronic waste. Moreover, energy consumption will increase as myriads
of tiny electronic devices pervade the market. Smart products, for example intelligent house-
hold goods, can also help in optimising the energy and material efficiency of other production
and consumption processes. The extent of positive and negative effects depends on how effec-
tively sustainable innovation policies govern the development of ICT infrastructures and
products in the coming years.
Chapter 3 takes a closer look at the prospective end-of-life implications of one particular fam-
ily of pervasive computing devices: electronic textiles. These novel high-tech products consist
of small electronic devices, which are seamlessly embedded into clothing and technical tex-
tiles. The examination of their possible end-of-life implications suggests that such products
may, if they become mass consumer applications, result in a new kind of waste that is difficult
to recycle. The magnitude of future e-textile waste streams has been estimated, based on sce-
nario calculations that draw from experiences with the previous market penetration rates of
mobile phones. Large amounts of waste can be expected to be generated, if e-textiles become
commercially successful products. The article concludes that the innovation process of e-
textiles could hold opportunities to prevent future end-of-life impacts.
Chapter 4 elaborates further on the concept of risk prevention at the early stage of technology
development. At first, the case studies on smart textiles and nano textiles are picked up and
the environmental, health, safety and sustainability (EHS/S) risks of these technologies are
outlined. Poorly managed EHS/S risks can entail enterprise risks for companies that develop
their business plans around emerging technologies. By putting the discussion of EHS/S risks
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into the context of business risk management, it is shown that enterprises have the potential to
implement risk preventative innovation strategies for emerging technologies. Companies can
hedge against adverse business impacts of EHS/S risks by implementing life cycle thinking
and eco-design in the product development process.
Chapter 5 elaborates in more detail on the eco-design challenges of e-textiles. The conclu-
sions of the previous two chapters are taken as a starting point for more viable design strate-
gies that counteract future waste problems with electronic textiles. Design experiments with e-
textiles serve as a test-bed to adopt Design for Recycling principles. It is shown that the exist-
ing eco-design concepts are in need of revision, as they do not match with the properties of
the converging technology. The chapter maps out possible eco-design strategies for the end-
of-life phase of e-textiles. It is argued that technology developers ought to develop and adopt
compatibility standards in order to avoid progressive obsolescence of future e-textiles. In ad-
dition, smart materials and smart labelling offer new opportunities to facilitate the recycling
of these high-tech products.
Chapter 6 looks into the applicability of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) as a decision support
instrument for the environmentally conscious development of smart textiles. A survey of
Small and Medium sized Enterprises (SMEs) in the smart textile sector is provided. The re-
sults show that these companies hardly use LCA during the product innovation stage. A LCA
about one example of a smart textile product demonstrates that even a preliminary LCA can
set eco-design activities in motion during the development of smart textiles. The chapter then
outlines a methodological concept of an LCA-based design decision support tool for SMEs in
the smart textiles sector.
Chapter 7 takes a different perspective on risk prevention at the early stage of innovations.
The criticality of raw materials is examined as an example of an intangible risk that is difficult
to appraise due to the complexity and uncertainty of influencing aspects. The chapter explores
why industrial designers and engineers should care about unintended implications of techno-
logical progress. Chapter 8 elaborates further on the reasons to increase the awareness of in-
dustrial designers and engineers about the limits in availability of critical materials. It is ar-
gued that materials criticality can give a fresh impetus to the education of industrial design
engineers. It is important to train future professionals to apply a systems perspective to the
process of technology innovation, enabling them to thrive under circumstances of constrained
material choices. The conclusions outline ideas on how to weave the topic into existing educa-
tional programmes.
Chapter 9 summarises the answers to the research questions raised in this dissertation and
draws conclusions. The dissertation elaborates anticipatory strategies the prevention of envi-
ronmental risks concurrent to the innovation process of smart textiles. These strategies en-
compass: The use of eco-design heuristics based on life cycle assessment. Developing the
education and skills of industrial designers and engineers to enable them working out and
implement concrete eco-design measures. And, raising the risk awareness of industrial de-
signers and engineers and forming attitudes to counteract risks proactively.
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