Knowledge Needs and Information Extraction

271 Pages·2013·11.79 MB·English

Knowledge Needs and Information Extraction
Tomyson,Alexis.
Knowledge Needs
and
Information Extraction
Towards an Artificial Consciousness
Nicolas Turenne
Series Editor
Jean-Charles Pomerol
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Table of Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Chapter1.Consciousness:anAncientandCurrentTopicofStudy. . . . . 1
1.1.Multidisciplinarityofthesubject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.Terminologicaloutlook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.Theologicalpointofview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.Notionofbeliefandautonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.Scientificschoolsofthought. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6.Thequestionofexperience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter2.Self-motivationonaDailyBasis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.Innewsblogs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.Marketing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.Appearance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4.Mysticalexperiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5.Infantheism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.6.Addiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter3.TheNotionofNeed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.Hierarchyofneeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.1.Level-1needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1.2.Level-3needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.Thesatiationcycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
vi KnowledgeNeedsandInformationExtraction
Chapter4.TheModelsofSocialOrganization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.Theentrepreneurialmodel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2.Motivationalandethicalstates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Chapter5.SelfTheories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Chapter6.TheoriesofMotivationinPsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.1.Behaviorandcognition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.2.Theoryofself-efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.3.Theoryofself-determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.4.Theoryofcontrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.5.Attributiontheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.6.Standardsandself-regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.7.Devianceandpathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.8.TemporalMotivationTheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.9.Effectofobjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.10.Contextofdistancelearning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.11.Maintenancemodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.12.Effectofnarrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.13.Effectofeviction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.14.Effectoftheteacher–studentrelationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.15.Modelofpersistenceandchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.16.Effectoftheman–machinerelationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Chapter7.TheoriesofMotivationinNeurosciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.1.Academicliteratureonthesubject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2.PsychologyandNeurosciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.3.Neurophysiologicaltheory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.4.Relationshipbetweenthemotivationalsystemandtheemotions . . . . 56
7.5.Relationshipbetweenthemotivationalsystemandlanguage . . . . . . 58
7.6.Relationshipbetweenthemotivationalsystemandneed . . . . . . . . . 59
Chapter8.LanguageModeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.1.Issuessurroundinglanguage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.2.Interactionandlanguage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.3.Developmentandlanguage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.4.Schoolsofthoughtinlinguisticsciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.5.Semanticsandcombination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.6.Functionalgrammar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.7.Meaning-TextTheory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.8.Generativelexicon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
TableofContents vii
8.9.Theoryofsynergeticlinguistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.10.Integrativeapproachtolanguageprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.11.Newspacesfordateproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.12.Notionofontology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.13.Knowledgerepresentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Chapter9.ComputationalModelingofMotivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.1.Notionofacomputationalmodel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2.Multi-agentsystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.3.Artificialself-organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.4.Artificialneuralnetworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.5.Freewilltheorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.6.Theprobabilisticutilitymodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.7.Theautoepistemicmodel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Chapter10.HypothesisandControlofCognitiveSelf-Motivation . . . . . 93
10.1.Socialgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.2.Innateself-motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.3.Masscommunication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
10.4.TheCost–Benefitratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10.5.Socialrepresentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
10.6.Therelationalenvironment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.7.Perception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.8.Identity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.9.Socialenvironment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.10.Historicalantecedence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
10.11.Ethics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Chapter11.AModelofSelf-MotivationwhichAssociates
LanguageandPhysiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.1.Anewmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.2.Architectureofaself-motivationsubsystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
11.3.Levelofcertainty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.4.Needforself-motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.5.Notionofmotive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.6.Ageandlocation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
11.7.Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
11.8.Effectofspontaneity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
11.9.Effectofdependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
11.10.Effectofemulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11.11.Transitionofbelief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
viii KnowledgeNeedsandInformationExtraction
11.12.Effectofindividualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
11.13.Modelingofthegroupsofbeliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Chapter12.ImpactofSelf-MotivationonWrittenInformation . . . . . . . 123
12.1.Platformforproductionandconsultationoftexts . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.2.Informationalmeasureofthemotivesofself-motivation . . . . . . . . 124
12.2.1.Intra-phrasticextraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
12.2.2.Inter-phrasticextraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.2.3.Meta-phrasticextraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12.3.Theinformationmarket. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
12.4.Typesofdata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.5.Theoutlinesoftextmining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.6.Softwareeconomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
12.7.Standardsandmetadata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
12.8.Open-endedquestionsandchallengesfortext-miningmethods . . . . 140
12.9.Notionoflexicalnoise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.10.Webmining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
12.11.Miningapproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Chapter13.Non-TransversalTextMiningTechniques . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.1.Constructivistactivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13.2.Typicalityassociatedwiththedata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.3.Specificcharacteroftextmining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.4.Supervised,unsupervisedandsemi-supervisedtechniques. . . . . . . 149
13.5.Qualityofamodel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
13.6.Thescenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
13.7.Representationofadatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.8.Standardization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
13.9.Morphologicalpreprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.10.Selectionandweightingofterminologicalunits. . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
13.11.Statisticalpropertiesoftextualunits:lexicallaws . . . . . . . . . . . 154
13.12.Sub-lexicalunits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
13.14.Shallowparsingorsuperficialsyntacticanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
13.15.Argumentationmodels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Chapter14.TransversalTextMiningTechniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
14.1.Mixedandinterdisciplinarytextminingtechniques . . . . . . . . . . . 159
14.1.1.Supervised,unsupervisedandsemi-supervisedtechniques . . . . 159
14.2.Techniquesforextractionofnamedentities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.3.Inversemethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
14.4.LatentSemanticAnalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
TableofContents ix
14.5.Iterativeconstructionofsub-corpora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
14.6.Orderingapproachesorrankingmethod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
14.7.Useofontology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
14.8.Interdisciplinarytechniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
14.9.Informationvisualizationtechniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
14.10.Thek-meanstechnique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
14.11.NaiveBayesclassifiertechnique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
14.12.Thek-nearestneighbors(KNN)technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
14.13.Hierarchicalclusteringtechnique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
14.14.Density-basedclusteringtechniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
14.15.Conditionalfields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
14.16.Nonlinearregressionandartificialneuralnetworks . . . . . . . . . . 176
14.17.Modelsofmulti-agentsystems(MASs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
14.18.Co-clusteringmodels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
14.19.Dependencymodels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
14.20.Decisiontreetechnique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
14.21.TheSupportVectorMachine(SVM)technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
14.22.Setoffrequentitems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
14.23.Geneticalgorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
14.24.Linkanalysiswithatheoreticalgraphmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
14.25.Linkanalysiswithoutagraphmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
14.26.Qualityofamodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
14.27.Modelselection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Chapter15.FieldsofInterestforTextMining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
15.1.Theavenuesintextmining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
15.1.1.Organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
15.1.2.Discovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
15.2.Aboutdecisionsupport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
15.3.Competitiveintelligence(vigilance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
15.4.Aboutstrategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
15.5.Aboutarchivemanagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
15.6.Aboutsociologyandthelegalfield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
15.7.Aboutbiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
15.8.Aboutotherdomains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Introduction
The title of this book is both subversive and ambitious. It is subversive because
few academic publications deal with this subject. There has, of course, been work
doneinroboticsonartificiallyreproducinga“human”movement.Onecanalsofind
more cognitive works about the way of reasoning – i.e. storing and structuring
information to induce the validity of a relation between two pieces of information.
However,theterm“artificialconsciousness”isnotapplicabletoanyoftheseworks.
Thereisprobablyaspiritualconnotationwhichphilosophershavedodgedbycalling
thediscipline“reason”or“rationality”.
The book presents a theory of consciousness which is unique and sustainable in
nature, based on physiological and cognitive-linguistic principles controlled by a
numberofsocio-psycho-economicfactors.
Chapter1 recontextualizes this notion of consciousness with a certain current
aspect.
In order to anchor this theory, which draws upon various disciplines, this book
presents a number of different theories, all of which have been abundantly studied
by scientists from both a theoretical and experimental standpoint. These issues are
addressedbyChapters4(modelsofsocialorganization),5(egotheories),6(theories
ofthemotivationalsysteminpsychology),7(theoriesofthemotivationalsystemin
neurosciences), 8 (language modeling) and 9 (computational modeling of
motivation).
This book is adeliberate attempt to be eclectic – sometimes presenting fuzzy or
nearlyesotericpointsofview.However,aboveall,itcarefullyhighlightsthecontext
with validated and accepted theories drawn from academic disciplines which are
recognized at the scientific and international levels: psychology, physiology,
computing, linguistics and sociology. These are highly technical disciplines, with
extensiveanalyticaldepthandalonghistory,fromwhichitwasnecessarytoisolate