Table Of ContentJUSTICE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Justice and Natural
Resources
An Egalitarian Theory
CHRIS ARMSTRONG
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Acknowledgements
Ihavebeenworkingonthisbookforroughlyhalfadecade,andhaveracked
up a number of debts along the way. A Mid-Career Fellowship from the
British Academy during the academic year 2012–13 provided much-needed
time to make progress on the manuscript. Visiting fellowships at the Centre
for Democracy, Peace and Justice at the University of Uppsala, at the Centre
fortheStudyofSocialJusticeattheUniversityofOxford,andintheSchoolof
Philosophy in the Australian National University provided space away from
thedistractionsofmyhomeuniversity.Ihavealsobenefitedgreatlyfromthe
broadcommunityofpeoplenowworkingonegalitariantheory,globaljustice,
territorialrights,andnaturalresources.Forcommentsonvariouschapters—
and in some cases the whole manuscript—I would like to extend my sincere
thanks to Ayelet Banai, Megan Blomfield, Gillian Brock, Alex Brown, Daniel
Callies, Simon Caney, Ian Carter, Dimitris Efthymiou, Anca Gheaus, Bob
Goodin, Clare Heyward, Holly Lawford-Smith, Duncan McLaren, Alejandra
Mancilla,AndrewMason,DarrelMoellendorf,ShmulikNili,KieranOberman,
David Owen, Ed Page, Fabian Schuppert, Henry Shue, Annie Stilz, Kit
Wellman, Leif Wenar, Scott Wisor, and Lea Ypi. I would also like to thank
audiencesattheUniversityofAmsterdam,theAustralianNationalUniversity,
the University of Bristol, the University of the West of England in Bristol,
UniversityCollegeDublin,theUniversityofDurham,HumboldtUniversityof
Berlin,theLondonSchoolofEconomics,McGillUniversity,theUniversityof
New South Wales, the University of Oslo, Nuffield College Oxford, the
University of Salamanca, the University of Southampton, the University of
Uppsala,theUniversityofUtrecht,theUniversityofVienna,theUniversityof
Warwick,andtheUniversityofZurich.Iwouldliketoextendspecialthanksto
thosewhoparticipatedinasymposiumonmybook-in-progressattheGoethe
University Frankfurt during January 2016, including Darrel Moellendorf,
Merten Reglitz, Daniel Callies, Eszter Kollar, Anca Gheaus, and Ayelet
Banai. All of these interlocutors have helped me to sharpen the arguments
presented here, though I am aware that many of them continue to disagree
withsome,andsometimesmuch,ofwhatIhavetosay.
Chapter3drawsonmypaper‘NaturalResources:TheDemandsofEqual-
ity’, Journal of Social Philosophy 44/4 (2013): 331–47. Chapter5 draws on
‘JusticeandAttachmenttoNaturalResources’,JournalofPoliticalPhilosophy
14/2 (2014): 48–65. Chapter6 draws on ‘Against “Permanent Sovereignty”
vi Acknowledgements
over Natural Resources’, Politics, Philosophy and Economics 14/2 (2015):
129–51.Ineachcasethetexthasbeenrevisedsubstantially.
Finally, I would like to dedicate this book to those who have given me so
much support while I wrote it: for Sophia, Felix, Leonard, and Yasmin,
withlove.
Contents
Introduction 1
1. ResourcesandRights 9
2. EqualityandItsCritics 29
3. TheDemandsofEquality 62
4. RewardingImprovement 93
5. AccommodatingAttachment 113
6. AgainstPermanentSovereignty 132
7. PerfectingSovereignty? 150
8. ResourceTaxes 177
9. TheOcean’sRiches 201
10. TheBurdensofConservation 220
References 248
Index 262
Introduction
Conflicts over natural resources are impossible to ignore in our world. We
knowthatthetribespeopleoftheAmazonhavebeenbrutallydispossessedas
great swathes of rainforest are destroyed. Weunderstand that a key factor in
many of the civil wars which have devastated African communities is the
struggletogaincontroloversuppliesofoil,diamonds,andgold.Wemayeven
remember that a relentless thirst for natural resources spurred Europe’s
colonization of the world, shaping the very boundaries of nation-states in its
aftermath.Countries suchas Argentina,the IvoryCoast, andtheGold Coast
(now Ghana) were even named after the resources to be found (or pillaged)
there. Others (including Nigeria, Cameroon, Senegal, and Gambia) were
namedfortheriverswhichsustainedlocalcommunities.
Asresourcesareconsumedevermorefrenetically,strugglesoverthemshow
no sign of disappearing. The desire to exert control over as yet untapped
naturalresourceshasmotivatednewterritorialclaimsovertheArcticregion,
andseenmillionspouredintodeep-seaminingtechnology.Politicalscientists
haveoftenpredictedthat‘waterwars’willbeafeatureofourfuture,although
thankfully those predictions have not yet been borne out.1 We know that
many economies in the Middle East have been transformed by the discovery
ofoil,andbytheconflictswhichhavesometimesfollowed.Buttheseconflicts
arenotconfinedtogeographical‘hotspots’.Ratherdisagreementsaboutwho
owns resources, and how they should be used, are endemic. In the Scottish
independencecampaignof2014,debatesabouttheviabilityofaScottishstate
frequentlyturnedonrivalclaimsaboutwhowouldendupowningNorthSea
oil,andevenwhatpriceitmightbeexpectedtocommandinthecomingyears.
AsIwrite,manyCanadiancitizensarecampaigningtoraiseawarenessofthe
environmental impact of oil pipelines, and tar sands exploitation, on virgin
forestsandontheindigenouspeoplewholiveinthem.
Itisabundantlyclearthatnaturalresourcesmattertopeople.Allofusneed
some resources if we are to survive—including water, air, light from the sun,
andsomelandtostandupon.Othersaresovaluablethatstateswhichpossess
large reserves of them have a guaranteed source of income (though whether
that income will be turned into sustained economic growth, or shared with
