Table Of Content!JNIIJERSITY OF HAWIS,:'!"I3I,ARY
BICULTURALISM, RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND INDIGENOUS SELF-
DETERMINATION
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FORTHE DEGREE OF
DOCTOROF PHILOSOPHY
IN
GEOGRAPHY
DECEMBER 2003
By
Jay T. Johnson
Dissertation Committee:
BrianMurton, Chairperson
Geoffrey White
Murray Chapman
Jonathan Goss
Everett Wingert
Copyright2003 by Jay T. Johnson
All Rights Reserved
III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many individualshave assistedinthe completionofthis dissertation and Iwould
like to thankthem forthe help theyprovided. First, and foremost, I wantto thankthe
many Maori who showed me a great deal ofgenerosity andwithout whom this work
would neverhave beencompleted. Iwanttothankthose whopointed me inthe right
direction andhelpedto getmy research inAotearoa/NewZealandstartedincluding,
Mere Roberts, SirPaul Reeves and BradCombes. Additionallythere arethose who
helped me find aplace to settle duringmytime in Hamiltonand atthe University of
Waikato including, Kathryn Besio,Paul Berkowitz, John Campbell, Tracey Kingi and
PaniaMelbourne. Finally, there arethemany individuals Iinterviewedwhilefinding
my waythroughthe research: Angeline Grensill, CarmenKirkwood, Hirini Matunga,
Jacque Amohanga, Charlie Pera, andJim Te Tuhi, amongmany others.
I alsowantto thankthosewhohavehelpedmethroughthe writingprocess and
have shownme great generositywhile in Honolulu, including many movies andmeals
withRenee Louis, Arna Goldstein andthe rest ofthe Louis 'ohana. Ialsowanttothank
two particularcommittee members: BrianMurton, withoutwhomthisworkwould
neverhavebeenconceived,and Ev Wingerttwho helped me discoverthat I could learn
to make maps ofmyown.
IV
FinallyI wantto thank all ofmy family backinKansas who have hadto get
along without me thesepastfive years, my friends scatteredacrossNorthAmericawho
haveprovidedfree counselingandI especially wanttothankmymother andfather who
have hadfaith inme throughoutthis entirejourney.
v
ABSTRACT
Indigenous self-detenninationis primarilyaquestion ofcontroloverour own
bodies, communities, resources and land. Most Indigenous peoplesinNorth and South
America as well as the South Pacifictodayfind themselves dominated bynation-states
which are governedbythe descendants ofsettlers: removedfrom traditional lands,
resources and culturalpatrimony. Oftenthis dominationhas brought Indigenous
peoplesintopolitical and evenarmed conflict with settlercontrollednation-states. This
dominationofIndigenouspopulations and separationfrom theirresources andlands has
severedIndigenous self-detennination, disruptingtheir autonomy overtheircustomary
lands and its resources.
Biculturalismhasbeenoneanswerproposedto reversethetrend of
dispossessionfaced byIndigenous communities. InAotearoa/New Zealand,
biculturalismhasbecome governmentpolicy, incorporated into legislationin an effortto
substantiatethe partnershipbetweenMaori andthe Crownfirstproposedbythe Treaty
ofWaitangiin 1840. This dissertation's primaryfocus is onevaluatingbiculturalismas
amodel for Indigenousself-detennination. Onecomponentofbiculturalismin
Aotearoa/New Zealandis the inclusionofMaori conceptual regulatorswithinthe
legislativeacts ofthe nation. This pluralistic tumwithinNewZealand lawis
VI
transformingnotonlythe legal, butalso the physical and cultural landscapesofthe
nation.
The comprehensive Resource ManagementActof1991 (RMA) is one example
ofthe incorporationofthe government'sbicultural discourse withinthe legal framework
ofNewZealand. The inclusionofMaori concepts such askaitiakitangahas alteredthe
framework within which resourcemanagement ispracticed and adjudicated in New
Zealand. In aneffortto explorehowthe inclusionofMaori concepts withinthe RMA
hasfurthered orhinderedMaori self-determinationthis workfocuses ontelling the
storiesofseveral Maoriwho act as kaitiakiwithin their owncornmunities. The exercise
ofself-determinationby Maori, or any otherIndigenous people, does nothappen against
aninertbackdrop but is grounded inthe local politicsandhistory ofthe place. These
stories provideevidenceofthe successes and failures oftheRMA infurthering
biculturalismandproviding Maoriwithafull sharinginthe processes ofgovernment
and theexercisingofpower.
va
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV
ABSTRACT VI
LISTOFTABLES XI
LISTOFFIGURES XII
CHAPTERONE
IN1RODUCTION 1
HowICAMETODOTHISRESEARCH 4
WHATIHOPEDTOFIND 7
HowI WENTABOUTDOINGTHEWORK 8
WAITANG!:A BICULTURALLANDSCAPE 10
ContactZones 15
Transculturation '" 16
Autoethnography 18
SITESELECTION 20
CHAPTEROUTLINES............................................................•..........................................24
Chapter Two: Autochthonous: Springingfrom the Land: Blood/land/sovereignty
...................................................................................................................................n
Chapter Three: Biculturalism; a thirdspace of1ndigenousself-determination 27
ChapterFour: Legal colonization, pluralism andparallelism 28
Chapter Five: Indigenous self-determinationandresource managementinNew
Zealand: Four Maori StoriesofSelf-determination 30
ChapterSix: Biculturalism; success orfailure? 31
SUMMARy 32
CHAPTERTWO
AUTOCH11IONOUS: SPRINGINGFROMTHELAND 33
INTRODUCTION 33
BLOOD/IDENTITY......................................................................................•.....................35
Maori 39
Fakehti 47
NATUREILANDIRESOURCES 51
Fakehaandthe Land 55
Vlll
Maori andthe Land 59
MEMORY!HISTORY!SELF-DETERMINATION 65
Western LawandBritishSovereignty 68
Maori tino rangatiratanga 72
CONCLUSION 81
CHAPTERTIIREE
BICUL11JRALISM:A1HIRDSPACEOF INDIGENOUS SELF-DETERMINATION83
INTRODUCTION 83
MULTICULTURALISM 85
BICULTURALISM..................................................................................•........................103
THIRDSPACE 120
CONCLUSION 126
CHAP1ERFOUR
LEGALCOLONIZATION,PLURALISMANDPARAlLELISM 128
LAWANDGEOGRAPHY 130
LAW, COLONIALISMANDNEWZEALAND 133
TIKANGA: MAoRI CUSTOMARYLAW 136
THELEGALCOLONIZATIONOFNEWZEALAND 146
LEGALPLURALISMINNEWZEALAND: THENANDNow 150
LEGALPARALLELISM 156
CONCLUSION 163
CHAPTERFIVE
INDIGENOUS SELF-DETERMINATIONANDRESOURCEMANAGEMENTIN
NEWZEALAND 165
INTRODUCTION 165
THERESOURCEMANAGEMENTACT: ANENVIRONMENTALHISTORy 169
THEORGANIZATIONOFTHERMA 174
THEENVIRONMENTCOURT 181
THERMAANDBICULTURALISM 182
CASESTUDIES: FOURMAoRISTORIES 184
Methods 184
FOURMAoRISTORIES 191
Capacity Building 191
NationalversusLocalGovernment 203
Mana 211
AuthorityandMapping 219
CONCLUSION..................................................................................•.............................231
IX
CHAPTERSlX
CONCLUSION 234
INTRODUCTION 234
A REVIEWOfWHEREWEHAVEBEEN 236
WHATHASBEEN LEARNED 241
GLOBALIZATIONANDINDIGENISM.......................•.......................................................248
SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENTANDINTERNATIONALLAW 251
NUNAVUTTERRITORY,CANADA 253
A BRIEFCOMPARISON 257
A LESSONfOROTHERINDIGENOUSCOMMUNITIES 261
1NDIGENEITY'SCHALLENGESTOTHESETTLER-STATE 266
GLOSSARy 269
BmLIOGRAPHY 270
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table I A bicultural commitment: goals and structures 107
Table 2 Constitutional Elements ofthe MaoriNation 184
Xl
Description:an inert backdrop but is grounded in the local politics and history ofthe place. These .. traditions - the bodies ofknowledge and corresponding codes ofvalues - evolved over many SlIITOWlding area ofthe Bay of Islands! describe the key theoretical concepts which provide a foundation for this.
