Table Of ContentMon.Not.R.Astron.Soc.000,000–000 (0000) Printed1February2008 (MNLATEXstylefilev1.4)
Irradiation of the secondary star in X-ray Nova Scorpii
1994 (=GRO J1655–40)
T. Shahbaz1, P. Groot2, S.N. Phillips1, J. Casares3, P.A. Charles1, J. van Paradijs2,4
1Universityof Oxford, Department of Physics, Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Keble Road, Oxford, OX13RH, UK
2Astronomical Institute “Anton Pannekoek”, University of Amsterdam and Centerfor HighEnergy Astrophysics, Kruislaan, 403, 1098 SJ
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
3Institutode Astrof´ısica de Canarias 38200 La Laguna, Tenerife,Spain
0 4PhysicsDepartment, UAH, Hunstville, Alabama 35899, USA
0
0
2 1February2008
n
a
J ABSTRACT
3
1 We have obtained intermediate resolution optical spectra of the black-hole candidate
Nova Sco 1994 in June 1996, when the source was in an X-ray/optical active state
1 (R∼15.05). We measure the radial velocity curve of the secondary star and obtain a
v semi-amplitude of 279±10kms−1; a value which is 30 per cent larger than the value
7 obtained when the source is in quiescence. Our large value for K2 is consistent with
2 60+9 per cent of the secondary star’s surface being heated; compared to 35 per cent,
−7
2
which is what one would expect if only the inner face of the secondary star were
1
irradiated. Effects such as irradiation-induced flows on the secondary star may be
0
0 important in explaining the observed large value for K2.
0
Key words: accretion, accretion discs – binaries: close – stars: individual: X-ray
/
h Nova Sco 1994 (GRO J1655–40)– X-rays: stars.
p
-
o
r
st 1 INTRODUCTION of 228.2±2.2 kms−1. Shahbaz et al. (1999) using only
a quiescent data, determined the true radial velocity semi-
v: The soft X-raytransients, asubclass of thelow-mass X-ray amplitudeK2=215.5±2.4kms−1whichgivesarevisedvalue
i binariesdistinguishedbytheirX-rayoutbursts,haveproved for the mass function of f(M) = 2.73±0.09 M⊙. They also
X
to be an ideal hunting ground for stellar-mass black hole measured the rotational broadening of the secondary star
ar candidates (Tanaka & Shibazaki 1996). The system Nova which then gives the binary mass ratio q∼0.39 (=M2/M1,
Sco1994(=GROJ1655–40)isparticularlyinteresting,since whereM1 andM2 arethemassesofthecompactobjectand
as well as being asource of superluminal jets (Zhanget al., secondary star respectively).
1994;Harmonetal.,1995),itsopticalbrightnessandpartial The effect of heating of the secondary is to shift the
eclipse features mean that it is one of the few systems that ‘effectivecentre’ of thesecondary, weighted bythestrength
hasyielded areliable estimatefor themass of thecollapsed of the absorption lines, from the centre of mass of the star.
star. One expects that this results in a significant distortion of
theradial velocity curveand rendersa sinusoidal fit clearly
Nova Sco 1994 was discovered on July 27 1994 with
inadequate,leadingtoaspuriouslyhighradialvelocitysemi-
BATSE on board the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
amplitude. In order to quantify this effect we have deter-
(Zhang et al., 1994). It has been studied extensively dur-
mined the radial velocity variations of the secondary star
ing the past few years in X-rays and at optical and ra-
in Nova Sco 1994, when it was in outburst and compared
dio wavelengths (Bailyn et al., 1995a and b, Zhang et al.,
ourresults with others obtained using datataken when the
1995, van der Hooft et al. 1998). Strong evidence that
source was in different X-ray states.
the compact object in Nova Sco 1994 is a black hole was
presented by Bailyn et al. (1995b) who initially estab-
lished a spectroscopic period of 2.601 ± 0.027 days, clas-
sified the secondary as an F2–F6iv type star and sug- 2 OBSERVATIONS AND DATA REDUCTION
gested a mass function f(M)=3.16±0.15 M⊙. An im- 2.1 Spectroscopy
proved value of f(M)=3.24±0.09 M⊙ was presented by
Orosz & Bailyn (1997) using both quiescent and out- Intermediate resolution optical spectra of Nova Sco 1994
burst data, derived from a radial velocity semi-amplitude were obtained on 1996 June 20–24 with the 1.54-m Dan-
(cid:13)c 0000RAS
2 T. Shahbaz, P. Groot, S.N. Phillips, J. Casares, P.A. Charles, J. van Paradijs
Table 1.Logofobservations Table 2.Hαequivalentwidth
Night# #ofspectra seeing(′′) Orbitalphase Night# Orbitalphase EW(˚A)
covered
Night1 11 2.0 0.722–0.834 Night1 0.78 9.8±0.5
Night2 5 2.6 0.100–0.225 Night2 0.16 11.9±0.3
Night3 11 2.3 0.501–0.592 Night3 0.54 10.6±0.4
Night4 10 1.6 0.883–0.964 Night4 0.93 3.8±010
Night5 10 3.0 0.270–0.353 Night5 0.32 10.4±0.8
ishTelescopeattheEuropeanSouthernObservatory(ESO)
Hαemissionline(meanequivalentwidthof7.5±0.06˚A)and
in Chile using the Danish Faint Object Spectrograph and
a much weaker Hei 6678˚A (equivalent width of 0.4±0.03˚A)
Camera (DFOSC). We used grating #8 which gave a dis-
can be seen. In Table 2 we list the Hα equivalent width for
persion of 1.26 ˚A perpixeland a wavelength coverage from
thenightlyaverages.TheFeiabsorptionblendat6485,6496,
5865–8336˚A. The Loral 2048×2048 CCD was used, binned
6499,6502˚Aisalsovisible.Thesefeaturesareusedtodeter-
by a factor two in the spatial direction in order to reduce
mine the radial velocity of the secondary star (see section
the readout noise, but not binned in the dispersion direc-
4). The 6613˚A diffuseinterstellar band is also present.
tion.Theseeingduringtheobservationswaspoorandvari-
TheemissionlinesinNovaSco1994aredouble-peaked,
able (see section 2.2) so we used a slit width of 2′.′5 on the
which is presumably a consequence of the system being at
first night and then 2′.′0 for the other nights. This resulted
highinclination.Wecancomparetheobservedpeak-to-peak
in spectral resolutions of 7.6 ˚A and 5.5 ˚A for the first and
half separation of the Hα emission line (which arises from
other nights respectively. Wavelength calibration was per-
the accretion disc) with the projected velocity of the outer
formed using a Cu-Ararc. A total of 47 spectra were taken
disc edge. In a binary system with a mass ratio > 0.25 it
eachhavingexposuretimesof1800s(seeTable1fordetails).
is generally assumed that the accretion disc cannot grow
The data reduction and analysis was performed us-
ing the Starlink figaro package, the pamela routines of larger than thetidal truncation radius, rd (Paczynski1977;
Whitehurst 1988; Osaki, Hirose & Ichikawa 1993), which is
K.HorneandthemollypackageofT.R.Marsh.Removalof
approximatelygivenbyrd =0.60a/(1+q) for0.03<q<1,
theindividualbiassignal was achievedthrough subtraction
where a is the binary separation (Warner 1995). Given the
of a median bias frame. Small scale pixel-to-pixel sensitiv-
systemparameters(Porb=2.62168days;q∼0.39;i∼69de-
ityvariationswereremovedwith aflat-fieldframe prepared
from observations of a tungsten lamp. One-dimensional grees; M1 ∼6.7 M⊙ see Shahbaz et al., 1999) the minimum
value for the projected velocity of the accretion disc rim
spectra were extracted using the optimal-extraction algo-
is∼394 kms−1.Theobservedpeak-to-peakhalfseparation
rithm of Horne (1986), and calibration of the wavelength
of the Hα emission line (see Figure 1) in late June 1996 is
scale was achieved using 5th order polynomial fits which
385±8 kms−1(measuredbyfittingtheprofilewithadouble
gaveanrmsscatterof0.03˚A.Thestabilityofthefinalcali-
Gaussian), which implies that the accretion disc is close to
brationwasverifiedwiththeOHskylineat 6300.3˚A whose
its maximum possible size. Soria et al. (1998) estimate the
position was accurate towithin 0.1 ˚A.
Hα half peak-to-peak separation to be <350/2 kms−1and
<550/2 kms−1for their August/September 1994 and June
2.2 Photometry 1996 Hα observations respectively, velocities much lower
than expected, suggesting that the Hα emission line arises
Using the same setup as for the spectroscopy, we also ob- from non-Keplerian regions/flows in theaccretion disc.
tainedlimitedBessellr-bandimagesofNovaSco1994every
night. The data were debiased using a median bias frame,
but not flat-fielded,as nonewere taken. These images were
used to estimate the seeing each night (see Table 1). We
4 THE RADIAL VELOCITY OF THE
applied aperture photometry to Nova Sco 1994 and several
SECONDARY STAR
nearby comparison stars within the field of view. Johnson
V- and R-band magnitudes of these comparison stars were The radial velocities of the F-type secondary star in Nova
made available to us by J. Orosz. We determined the rela- Sco1994 were measured from thespectrabythemethodof
tivemagnitudeofNovaSco1994withrespecttothreestars cross-correlation(Tonry&Davis1979)withatemplatestar.
having a range of colours [(V −R)=0.49, 0.77 and 1.23]. Priortocross-correlation thespectrawereinterpolatedonto
Assuming that the colour correction between the two filter a logarithmic wavelength scale (pixel size 55 kms−1) using
systems is small (<0.05 mags; similar to the accuracy of asin x/xinterpolation schemetominimizedatasmoothing
our photometry) and that Nova Sco 1994 has a colour in (Stoveretal.1980),andthennormalised.Thetemplatestar
the same range as the comparison stars used, we estimate spectrum(HR2906;F6v)wasthenartificiallybroadenedby
R∼15.05 for NovaSco 1994. 90 kms−1(Shahbazetal.,1999)toaccountfortherotational
velocityofthesecondarystar.Notethattheorbitalsmearing
oftheNovaSco1994 spectrathroughthe1800s exposureis
atmostonly10 kms−1,muchlessthantheresolutionofthe
3 THE SPECTRA OF NOVA SCO 1994
data. Only regions of thespectrum devoid of emission lines
InFigure1weshowthevariance-weightedaverageandalso (6400-6520˚A) were used in thecross-correlation. Theradial
thenightlyaveragesoftheNovaSco1994spectra.Astrong velocity of the template star (derived using the position of
(cid:13)c 0000RAS,MNRAS000,000–000
Irradiation of the secondary star in X-ray Nova Scorpii 1994 (=GRO J1655–40) 3
theHαabsorptionlinetobe−7 kms−1)wasthenaddedto we expect the total radiated power for X-ray transients in
theradial velocities of NovaSco1994. bothoutburstandquiescencetolie(Chen,Shrader&Livio
Using the orbital ephemeris given by van der Hooft et 1997). Note that there is a correlation between X-ray lu-
al(1998) wephase-foldedandbinnedtheheliocentricradial minosity and the observed radial velocity semi-amplitude;
velocities (see Figure 2). From figure 2, it can be seen that the higher the X-ray luminosity the larger the observed ra-
theradialvelocitymeasurementatphase0.2doesnotfitthe dial velocity semi-amplitude, exactly as expected. We can
general pattern of the sinusoidal modulation present in the useourmodel toestimate theX-rayluminosity at thetime
data. This data point was the total of three radial velocity whenOrosz&Bailyn(1997) tooktheirradialvelocitymea-
measurements taken on the second night (21st June 1996). surements.WefindLx ∼5×1035 ergs−1whichisconsistent
Althoughtheseeingandqualityofthespectratakenduring with theBATSEupperlimit.
thisnightwerenotasgoodastheothers,noobviousreason
could be found as to why these spectra gave much lower
radial velocities than expected. A sine wave fit to all the
datapointsdoesnotgiveanadequatefit(χ2ν=6.9).However, 6 IRRADIATION OF THE SECONDARY STAR
removing the discrepant data point and then performing a It has been known for some time, especially in studies of
sine wave fit yields a χ2ν of 1.5, a semi-amplitude K2 = dwarf novae and polars, that substantial heating of the
279±10 kms−1, systemic velocity γ = −155±7 and a secondary star shifts the effective centre of the secondary,
phase shift of −0.043±0.005φ (1-σ errors are given). We weighted by the strength of the absorption lines, from the
also fitted the radial velocity curve with an eccentric orbit, centre of mass of the star. This results in a significant dis-
but found thefit tobe less than 50 percent significant. tortion of the radial velocity curve leading to a spuriously
high semi-amplitude and a radial velocity curve that may
be eccentric. Davey & Smith (1992) describe a procedure
for detectingtheeffectsof irradiation on theradial velocity
5 THE EFFECT OF IRRADIATION ON THE
curve of the secondary star, whereby one tests the signifi-
SECONDARY STAR’S RADIAL VELOCITY
cance of an eccentricity in the orbital solution. However, it
Three absorption line radial velocity curves have been ob- shouldbenotedthat,althoughourdatadoesnotallowthis
tained for Nova Sco 1994, using the same absorption fea- eccentricitytest,duetothepoororbitalphasecoverage,we
tures of the F6iv secondary star and the standard method can use the spuriously high radial velocity semi-amplitude
of cross-correlation. However, in each case the system was to show that X-ray heating is present.
observed to be in a different X-ray state. A sinusoidal fit In order to investigate the effects of X-ray heating on
to the outburst data taken in April/May 1995 of Orosz thesecondarystar’sradialvelocitycurveweusedthemodel
& Bailyn (1998) gives a radial velocity semi-amplitude of describedbyPhillips,Shahbaz&Podsiadlowski(1999).The
Kobs=230±2 kms−1. During this period BATSE did not model uses a crude treatment for X-ray heating, since no
detect the source, so we can only put an upper limit of satisfactory robust model exists for the effects of external
2.4×1036 ergs−1(<0.03photonsergcm−2s−1intheBATSE heatinginstars.However,itservestoillustratetheextreme
20-350 keV energy range) to the X-ray luminosity of the effectsofX-rayheating.Itshouldbenotedthatthefirstor-
source. This upper limit alone does not allow us to state dermodelofX-rayheatingbyBrett&Smith(1993),which
unequivocally that the source was not active at X-ray en- does not include energy transport effects, does show that
ergies, but optical observations suggest that thesource was the whole temperature structure of the outer layers of the
not in quiescence (V=16.5; Orosz & Bailyn 1998). In sec- secondary is upset by external heating. Figure 3 shows the
tion4wedeterminedK2=279±10kms−1fromdatatakenin effects of different amounts of X-ray luminosity on the sec-
June1996whenRXTEASM(2-12keV)observationsgivean ondary star’s radial velocity amplitude. Kobs is computed
X-ray luminosity of Lx=6.8×1037 ergs−1, and the R-band by fitting the predicted curve with an eccentric orbit. The
brightness was ∼ 1 mag brighter than its quiescent value. regions on the secondary star that are heated do not con-
The BATSE (20–350 keV) count rate was at least a factor tribute to the absorption line flux. The maximum possible
of 4 higher than in April/May 1995. Shahbaz et al. (1999) change that irradiation can have on Kobs, based purely on
determined the true radial velocity of the secondary star geometry, is 15 per cent. However, from our data presented
(K2=215.5±2.4 kms−1)in1998May/June,whenthesource inthispaper,we observe∆K2/K2=0.30±0.05, which when
was finally in optical quiescence. The only X-ray quiescent comparedwithmaximumpossiblevaluebasedongeometry,
observationswereobtainedduringMarch1996usingASCA is significant at the3-σ level.
(1-10 keV; Robinson et al., 1997) which gave Lx=2×1032 In Figure 4 we show how much of the secondary star’s
ergs−1. surfaceneedstobeheatedinordertoproducetheobserved
In Figure 3 we show the observed radial velocity am- radial velocity amplitude. Wefind that based purely on ge-
plitudes relative to the quiescent value as a function of the ometry 35 per cent of the secondary star’s surface is di-
observedX-rayluminosityatthetimeofthemeasurements. rectly heated by X-rays produced at the compact object.
We have converted the X-ray luminosities, which were ob- (This fraction only depends on the shape and size of the
served with different instruments, into a common energy secondary star, which in turn is determind by the q. Us-
range (0.4–10 keV) using a hydrogen column density of ing the extreme values for q (Shahhazet al., 1999), we find
Nh =0.89×1022 cm−2 andaphotonpower-lawmodelwith that this fraction changes by less than 1 per cent.) How-
indices 2.8 and 1.5 for the X-ray high and quiescent states ever, in order to produce the observed large radial velocity
respectively (see Table 3; Zhang et al., 1997; Robinson et semi-amplitude, 60+9 per cent of the secondary star needs
−7
al.,1997;Hameuryetal.,1997).Thisenergyrangeiswhere to be heated. The 1-σ uncertanties quoted here were esti-
(cid:13)c 0000RAS,MNRAS000,000–000
4 T. Shahbaz, P. Groot, S.N. Phillips, J. Casares, P.A. Charles, J. van Paradijs
Table 3.RadialvelocityandX-rayluminositymeasurements
Kobs Lx power-lawindex Corrected Lx
(kms−1) (ergs−1) Nh=0.89×1022 cm−1 (ergs−1)
215.5±2.4 2.0×1032 ASCA(1-10keV) 1.5 2.1×1032
232±2 <2.4×1036 BATSE(20-350kev) 2.8 <1.6×1037
279±10 6.8×1037 RXTE(2–12 keV) 2.8 8.5×1037
nated using the 1-σ uncertanties in ∆K2/K2. This result accreting,steadilyburningwhitedwarfirradiatestheaccre-
may seem surprising at first, since one expects only the re- tion disk and the secondary star, as suggested by van den
gions of thesecondary star facing thecompact object to be Heuvel et al. (1992). A simple description of energy trans-
irradiatedandyetourresultimpliesthatsomeoftheregions portonthesecondarysurfacewasusedandthenintegrated
notdirectlyseenbythecompactobject arealsoaffectedby overthewholesurface,whileconservingthetotalluminosity.
irradiation.However,oneshouldnotethateffectssuchasX- They found that significant energy transport of the irradi-
ray scattering and irradiation-induced flows on the surface ated fluxtonon-illuminated parts on thesecondary surface
of the secondary star (Phillips & Podsiadlowski 1999) can is requiredto simulate theobserved lightcurve, particularly
increase thefraction of thesecondary star that responds to aroundtheprimaryeclipse,whentheshadowedhemisphere
the X-ray source. Note that the regions on the secondary of thesecondary is in view.
star that are shadowed by the accretion disc will be indi- Recent models for irradiation-induced flows in binary
rectly heated by such mechanisms. Therefore Kobs can be stars have been computed by Martin & Davey (1995).
largerthanthatexpectedfromheatingtheinnerfaceofthe Theyconsideredcirculationingently-heatedsecondarystars
secondary star alone. (wheretheincidentfluxislessthantheintrinsicflux).Their
2-dimensional calculations included the effects of the Cori-
olis force and showed upwelling of hot material being car-
ried preferentially towards the direction of rotation of the
7 DISCUSSION
star. They also concluded that all secondary stars should
Theexistenceofcirculationinrotatingstarswasfirstproved show asymmetric heating, because of the presence of Cori-
in 1924 by von Zeipel (von Zeipel 1924). He demonstrated olis forces. Phillips (1999) has recently extended the study
that for a rotating homogeneous star, the radiative trans- of circulation to 3-dimensions. As well as including the ef-
portequationandequationofconservationofenergycannot fects of X-ray irradiation i.e. the anisotropic heating of the
be fulfilled simultaneously. This results in the formation of irradiatedsurface,andtheeffectsofsurfaceradiationstress,
meridional motions. Inorder tomaintain astationary state healsoconsidersthelarge-scaleeffectsoftherotationofthe
as assumed, one has to demand that these meridional mo- systemandincludesanapproximatetreatmentoftheCorio-
tions contribute to the energy transport. In the case of an lisforce.HisresultssuggestarealisticanalysisoftheCoriolis
irradiated rotating star, the situation is still more compli- force is essential for a full description of stellar circulation.
cated, since the radiation will induce additional circulation In order to study the extent of irradiation of the sec-
currents. ondary star one requires good quality spectrophotometric
Evidence for the existence of significant irradiation- studiesthroughoutanX-rayoutburst,duringwhichthelevel
driven circulation is provided byseveral sources. For exam- of X-ray irradiation and induced heating changes. This will
ple,theanalysisoftheopticallightcurveofHZHerculishas allowthesurfaceintensitydistributionacrossthesecondary
shown this to be heated by its accompanying X-ray source startobemapped(seeRutten&Dhillon1994andDavey&
HER X-1. Although the main features of the optical light Smith1996), from which effectssuchas irradiation-induced
variationarewellunderstood(HZHerisbrightwhentheX- circulation or star-spots can beinvestigated.
raysourceisinfrontofit,itsbrightnessisreducedduringthe
occultation oftheX-raysourcebythesecondary),themin-
imum at phase 0.0 is sharper than expected and indicates
some additional source of optical radiation at this phase. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Strittmatter et al. (1973) tried to explain this via the illu-
We would like to thank the referee, Prof. Robert Smith for
minationofthediskbyHZHer.Otherattemptsweremade
useful comments.
by Pringle (1973) and Bahcall, Joss & Avni (1974). How-
ever, the most successful explanation was due to Kippen-
hahn & Thomas (1979). They estimated the energy trans-
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6 T. Shahbaz, P. Groot, S.N. Phillips, J. Casares, P.A. Charles, J. van Paradijs
Figure 1.Top:Doppleraveragespectrum ofNovaSco1994intherestframeofthesecondarystarandanF6star(HR2906). Bottom:
Nightly averaged spectra of Nova Sco 1994 (first night at the top, last night at the bottom). The spectra have been normalized and
shiftedverticallyforclarity.ISindicatestheinterstellar6613˚A line.
(cid:13)c 0000RAS,MNRAS000,000–000
Irradiation of the secondary star in X-ray Nova Scorpii 1994 (=GRO J1655–40) 7
Figure 2. The radial velocity curve of the secondary star in Nova Sco 1994. The dashed curve is a sinusoidal fit to the data points
markedwithastar.ThedatahavebeenfoldedontheorbitalephemerisgivenbyvanderHooftetal.,(1998) and1.5orbitalcyclesare
shown.
(cid:13)c 0000RAS,MNRAS000,000–000
8 T. Shahbaz, P. Groot, S.N. Phillips, J. Casares, P.A. Charles, J. van Paradijs
Figure3. TheeffectsofdifferentamountsofX-rayheatingonthesecondarystar’sradialvelocitysemi-amplitude.Weshowthefractional
change inKobs as afunctionof Lx.Kobs iscomputed byfitting thepredicted curvewithaneccentric orbit. Thethreeobserved radial
velocitymeasurements arealsoshown.Thetwolowercurvesshowtheeffects ofX-rayheatingbasedpurelyongeometryi.e.onlythose
elements of area on the secondary star that aredirectly seen by the X-raysource areirradiated. The top curve (dashed line) show the
effects ofindirectX-rayheating, calculated byextending theradiationhorizonasseenbytheX-raysourcebyafurther24degrees(see
Figure4).TheeffectofthisadditionalheatingistoproduceavalueforKobs whichis30percentlargerthanexpectedpurelybasedon
geometry.
(cid:13)c 0000RAS,MNRAS000,000–000
Irradiation of the secondary star in X-ray Nova Scorpii 1994 (=GRO J1655–40) 9
Figure4.Theirradiatedsecondarystar’sRochelobeinthe(x−z)plane.Thecompactobjectisatcoordinates(1,0).Wehaveassumed
Lx =8.5×1037 ergs−1 and the extreme geometrical case witha massratio of q=0.44, an inclinationangle of i=71◦ and adiscangle
of2◦.Thedenseshadedregionshowsthearea(35percent)thatisirradiateddirectlybyX-raysproducedatthecompactobject;these
regions do not contribute to the observed absorption line flux. The less dense region shows the area (60 per cent) which must also be
heatedindirectlyinordertoproducethelargeobservedradialvelocitysemi-amplitude.
(cid:13)c 0000RAS,MNRAS000,000–000
