Iron and steel

310 Pages·2012·14.498 MB·English

by  William F Hosford

IronandSteel
Moderncivilizationasweknowitwouldnotbepossiblewithoutironand
steel.Steelisessentialinthemachinerynecessaryforthemanufactureof
allourneeds.Eventhewordsthemselveshavecometosuggeststrength.
Phrasessuchasironwilled,ironfisted,ironclad,ironcurtain,andpumping
ironimplystrength.Asteelyglanceisasternlook.Aheartofsteelrefersto
averyharddemeanor.TheRussiandictatorStalin(whichmeans“steel”
inRussian)chosethenametoinvokefearinhissubordinates.Thisbook
isintendedbothasaresourceforengineersandasanintroductiontothe
layman about our most important metal system. After an introduction
that deals with the history and refining of iron and steel, the rest of the
bookexaminestheirphysicalpropertiesandmetallurgy.
William F. Hosford is Professor Emeritus of Materials Science at the
UniversityofMichigan.Heistheauthorofnumerousresearchpublica-
tions and the following books: The Mechanics of Crystals and Textured
Polycrystals (1993); Physical Metallurgy (2005); Materials Science: An
Intermediate Text (2007); Materials for Engineers (2008); Reporting
Results: A Practical Guide for Scientists and Engineers with David C.
VanAken(2008);MechanicalBehaviorofMaterials,2ndedition(2009);
Wilderness Canoe Tripping (2009); Solid Mechanics (2010); Physical
Metallurgy,2ndedition(2010);andMetalForming:MechanicsandMet-
allurgy,4thedition,withRobertM.Caddell(2011).

IRON AND STEEL
William F. Hosford
UniversityofMichigan
cambridgeuniversitypress
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(cid:2)C WilliamF.Hosford2012
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Firstpublished2012
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
AcatalogrecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationdata
Hosford,WilliamF.
Ironandsteel/WilliamF.Hosford.
p. cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-1-107-01798-6(hardback)
1.Iron–History. 2.Steel–History. 3.Iron–Metallurgy.
4.Steel–Metallurgy. I.Title.
TN703.H67 2012
669′.1–dc23 2011037262
ISBN978-1-107-01798-6Hardback
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CONTENTS
Preface pagexi
1 GeneralIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Nomenclature 1
Phases 2
Production 3
2 EarlyHistoryofIronandSteel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
NativeIron 4
WroughtIron 6
Steel 8
References 10
3 ModernSteelMaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
BlastFurnace 11
Coke 13
BessemerSteel-MakingProcess 13
Open-HearthSteel-MakingProcess 15
BasicOxygenFurnace 16
ElectricArcProcess 18
FurnaceLiningsandSlags 19
Casting 20
HotRolling 21
ColdRolling 22
Recycling 22
References 24
v
vi Contents
4 ConstitutionofCarbonSteels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
MicrostructuresofCarbonSteels 25
PearliteFormation 30
References 34
5 PlasticStrength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
DislocationDensity 35
StrainHardening 35
GrainSize 37
SoluteEffects 39
TemperatureDependence 39
Hardness 40
Strain-RateDependenceofFlowStress 40
CombinedEffectsofTemperatureandStrainRate 46
Superplasticity 49
StrengthDifferentialEffect 49
References 50
6 Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
General 51
Recovery 51
ReliefofResidualStresses 54
Recrystallization 54
GrainGrowth 58
References 65
7 DeformationMechanismsandCrystallographicTextures. . . . . . .66
SlipandTwinningSystems 66
WireTexturesinbccMetals 66
RollingTexture 71
CompressionTexture 72
RecrystallizationTextures 77
References 79
8 SubstitutionalSolidSolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
PhaseDiagrams 80
TernaryPhaseDiagrams 80
EffectsofSolutesontheEutectoidTransformation 80
EffectofSolutesonPhysicalProperties 81
SolidSolutionHardening 81
Carbide-FormingTendencies 88
Contents vii
SoluteSegregationtoGrainBoundaries 89
References 89
9 InterstitialSolidSolutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
AtomicDiameters 90
LatticeSitesforInterstitials 90
LatticeExpansionwithC,N 92
SolubilityofCarbonandNitrogen 93
SnoekEffectinbccMetals 95
References 97
10 Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
General 98
MechanismsofDiffusion 99
DiffusionofInterstitials 102
References 103
11 StrainAging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
YieldingandLu¨dersBands 104
StrainAging 105
DynamicStrainAging 109
References 112
12 AusteniteTransformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
KineticsofAustenization 113
PearliteFormation 113
IsothermalTransformation 120
Bainite 123
ContinuousCoolingDiagrams 123
Martensite 125
RetainedAustenite 126
TransformationtoMartensite 128
MartensiteTypes 132
SpecialHeatTreatments 133
Miscellany 135
References 136
13 Hardenability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
JominyEnd-QuenchTest 137
HardenabilityBands 140
IdealDiameterCalculations 142
viii Contents
Boron 146
Miscellany 149
References 149
14 TemperingandSurfaceHardening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Tempering 150
SecondaryHardening 156
TemperEmbrittlement 157
Carburizing 158
CarburizingKinetics 159
KineticsofDecarburization 162
Carboaustempering 163
Nitriding 163
Carbonitriding 164
CaseHardeningWithoutCompositionChange 165
FurnaceAtmospheres 165
References 165
15 Low-CarbonSheetSteel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
SheetSteels 167
Strength 168
GradesofLow-CarbonSteel 168
WeatheringSteel 174
HeatingDuringDeformation 174
Taylor-WeldedBlanks 175
SpecialSheets 176
SurfaceTreatment 177
SpecialConcerns 178
References 178
16 SheetSteelFormability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
AnisotropicYielding 182
EffectofStrainHardeningontheYieldLocus 186
DeepDrawing 187
Stamping 189
FormingLimits 191
References 193
17 AlloySteels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
DesignationSystem 195
EffectofAlloyingElements 195
Contents ix
Applications 197
References 197
18 OtherSteels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
HadfieldAusteniticManganeseSteel 198
MaragingSteels 198
ToolSteels 199
HeatTreatmentofToolSteels 201
NoteofInterest 202
References 204
19 StainlessSteels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
GeneralCorrosionResistance 205
FerriticStainlessSteels 205
MartensiticStainlessSteels 208
AusteniticStainlessSteels 209
OtherStainlessSteels 212
Sensitization 214
OxidationResistance 216
References 217
20 Fracture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
DuctileFracture 218
BrittleFracture 222
TransitionTemperature 226
LiquidMetalEmbrittlement 227
HydrogenEmbrittlement 227
Fatigue 229
References 233
21 CastIrons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
Production 234
General 234
WhiteIrons 237
GrayIrons 237
CompactGraphiteIron 242
DuctileCastIron 244
MalleableCastIron 244
Matrices 246
AustemperingofCastIrons 250
x Contents
DampingCapacity 254
References 255
22 MagneticBehaviorofIron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256
General 256
Ferromagnetism 257
MagnetostaticEnergy 261
MagnetocrystallineEnergy 262
Magnetostriction 262
PhysicalUnits 263
TheB-HCurve 264
BlochWalls 266
SoftVersusHardMagneticMaterials 266
SoftMagneticMaterials 266
SiliconSteel 270
HardMagneticMaterials 272
Summary 274
References 275
23 Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276
CorrosionCells 276
PolarizationandPassivity 279
PourbaixDiagram 283
TypesofCorrosion 284
CorrosionControl 285
Rust 287
DirectOxidation 287
References 289
AppendixI:PhysicalPropertiesofPureIron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
AppendixII:ApproximateHardnessConversions
andTensileStrengthsofSteels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Index 295