Table Of ContentIonic Polymer Metal Composites (IPMCs)
Smart Multi-Functional Materials and Artificial Muscles
Volume 1
RSC Smart Materials
Series Editors:
Professor Hans-Jo¨rg Schneider, Saarland University, Germany
Professor Mohsen Shahinpoor, University of Maine, USA
Titles in this Series:
1: Janus Particle Synthesis, Self-Assembly and Applications
2: Smart Materials for Drug Delivery: Volume 1
3: Smart Materials for Drug Delivery: Volume 2
4: Materials Design Inspired by Nature
5:ResponsivePhotonicNanostructures:SmartNanoscaleOpticalMaterials
6: Magnetorheology: Advances and Applications
7: Functional Nanometer-Sized Clusters of Transition Metals: Synthesis,
Properties and Applications
8: Mechanochromic Fluorescent Materials: Phenomena, Materials and
Applications
9: Cell Surface Engineering: Fabrication of Functional Nanoshells
10: Biointerfaces: Where Material Meets Biology
11: Semiconductor Nanowires: From Next-Generation Electronics to
Sustainable Energy
12: Supramolecular Materials for Opto-Electronics
13: Photocured Materials
14: Chemoresponsive Materials: Stimulation by Chemical and Biological
Signals
15: Functional Metallosupramolecular Materials
16: Bio-Synthetic Hybrid Materials and Bionanoparticles: A Biological
Chemical Approach Towards Material Science
17: Ionic Polymer Metal Composites (IPMCs): Smart Multi-Functional
Materials and Artificial Muscles, Volume 1
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Ionic Polymer Metal Composites
(IPMCs)
Smart Multi-Functional Materials and
Artificial Muscles
Volume 1
Edited by
Mohsen Shahinpoor
University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
Email: [email protected]
RSCSmartMaterialsNo.17
PrintISBN:978-1-78262-077-8
PDFeISBN:978-1-78262-258-1
ISSN:2046-0066
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Preface
Itisagreathonortoserveaseditorforthishistoricvolumeonelectroactive
ionic polymers and in particular ionic polymer metal composites or
IPMCs as smart multi-functional polymeric actuators, sensors and energy
harvesters, among others. I can proudly proclaim that I have brought toge-
therinthisvolumetheleadingresearchersintheworldonvariousaspectsof
thisamazingbiomimeticroboticelectronicmaterialthatplayquitearolein
the future of electroactive polymers and smart multi-functional materials.
IPMC is a class of electroactive polymers that can be both actuator and
sensor. By applying voltage it exhibits large deformation, which is why it is
knownasartificialmuscleand,ontheotherhand,itactsasasmartmaterial
that can sense mechanical bending by creating proportional voltage. While
other strain sensors require a power source to work, the IPMC sensors not
only do not require power, but also they can create voltage and power that
makes them a potential candidate for battery-less sensors. Conversely, an
applied small voltage or electric field can induce an array of spectacularly
large deformation or actuation behaviors in IPMCs, such as bending,
twisting, rolling, twirling, steering and undulating.
My vision of the future of IPMC artificial muscles may be summarized
belowintermsofbothmedicalandindustrialapplications.NotethatIPMCs
areexcellentsensorsthatgeneratehugeoutputsintermsofmillivolts,which
canbeemployedforthesensing,transductionandharvestingofenergyfrom
wind or ocean waves. These unique materials work perfectly well in a wet
environment and thus they are excellent candidates for medical appli-
cations.Thesemightrangefromendovascularsteerersandstirrerstoenable
navigation within the human vasculature; use as deep brain stimulators or
employed in flat diaphragm micropumps for precision drug delivery, glau-
coma and hydrocephalus; artificial muscles for the surgical correction of
RSCSmartMaterialsNo.17
IonicPolymerMetalComposites(IPMCs):SmartMulti-FunctionalMaterialsand
ArtificialMuscles,Volume1
EditedbyMohsenShahinpoor
rTheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2016
PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org
v
vi Preface
ptosis (drooping eyelid syndrome); ophthalmological and vision improve-
ment applications; artificial muscles to assist a failing heart; correction of
facial paralysis, facioscapulohumeral and other applications in muscular
dystrophy; to mediate the control of drainage or flow within the human
body;andmyriadadditionalpurposes.Ontheindustrialside,duetothefact
that the IPMCs are excellent sensors and low-voltage actuators, they can be
used for both sensing and simultaneous actuation in many engineering
applications.Inthesensingmodetheyhaveaverygoodbandwidthtosense
lowaswellashighfrequencies,incontrasttopiezoelectricmaterialssuchas
PZT(LeadZirconateTitanate)orlithiumniobate,whichareonlysuitablefor
high-frequencysensing.TwoemergingvisionsofthefuturearetoseeIPMCs
heavilyutilizedinatomicforcemicroscopesasnovelanddynamicprobesin
scanning probe microscopy, as well as robotic surgery to facilitate the con-
veyance of specific haptic, force, tactile and impedance feedback to sur-
geons. IPMCs as active substrate and micro-pillars may be used to monitor
nano-bio and cellular dynamics in real time.
ThesetwovolumesonIPMCsprovideabroadcoverageofthestateofthe
art and recent advances in the field with detailed information on the char-
acteristicsandapplicationsofthesematerialsbysomeoftheworld’sleading
experts on various characterizations and modeling of IPMCs. This volume
contains 27 chapters to present a thorough coverage of all properties and
characteristics of IPMCs. Chapter 1 covers the fundamentals of IPMCs,
Chapter 2 covers optimal manufacturing of IPMCs, Chapter 3 discusses
graphene-based IPMCs, Chapter 4 describes what happens to IPMC elec-
trode interfaces and their effects on actuation and sensing, Chapter 5 pre-
sents step-by-step modeling of IPMCs using the multiphysics package of
Comsol, Chapter 6 describes IPMCs with electrochemical electrodes, Chap-
ter 7 presents electromechanical distributed modeling of IPMCs while
Chapter 8 discusses modeling for engineering design of IPMC devices and
Chapter 9 covers electric energy storage using flexible IPMC capacitors,
Chapter10 models the environmental dependency of IPMCs’actuationand
sensingdynamics,Chapter11discussestheprecisionfeedback/feedforward
control of IPMC dynamics while Chapter 12 covers the design, testing and
micromanipulation of IPMC microgrippers, Chapter 13 discusses the phe-
nomenon of spatially growing waves of snake-like robots and natural gen-
eration ofbiomimeticswimmingmotions.Volume 1ofthetwo volumes on
IPMCs ends here with Chapter 13 and Volume 2 starts with Chapter 14.
Chapter 14 covers underwater sensing of impulsive loading of IPMCs,
Chapter 15 presents a design of a micropump for drug delivery employing
IPMCs, Chapter 16 presents the modeling and characterization of IPMC
transducers, Chapter 17 discusses IPMCs as postsilicon transducers for the
realization of smart systems and Chapter 18 covers micromachined IPMC
actuators for biomedical applications, Chapter 19 presents recent advances
in IPMC self-sensing while Chapter 20 describes the continuum multi-
physics theoryfor IPMCs, Chapter21 covers multiphysics modelingof non-
linear plates made with IPMCs, Chapter 22 describes the applications of
Preface vii
IPMCs to dexterous manipulation and haptic feedback/tactile sensors for
minimally invasive robotic surgery, Chapter 23 covers IPMCs as soft bio-
mimetic robotic artificial muscles, Chapter 24 describes a family of ionic
electroactive actuators with giant electromechanical responses while Chap-
ter 25 describes the multiphysics modeling and simulation of dynamics
sensing in IPMCs with applications to soft robotics, and finally Chapter 26
presents a comprehensive review on electroactive paper actuators.
Iamhopingthatthecollectionofthesechaptersbytheleadingauthorities
on IPMCs will appeal to readers from chemistry, materials science, engin-
eering, physics and medical communities interested in both IPMC-related
materials and their applications.
Mohsen Shahinpoor
Orono, Maine, USA
Contents
Volume 1
Chapter1 FundamentalsofIonicPolymerMetalComposites(IPMCs) 1
Mohsen Shahinpoor
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 History of IPMCs 2
1.2 Chemistry of Manufacturing IPMCs 3
1.3 Introduction to Manufacturing IPMCs 5
1.4 Mechanisms of Actuation and Sensing
in IPMCs 7
1.5 Actuation, Energy Harvesting and Sensing of
IPMCs in Brief 8
1.6 Mathematical Modeling of IPMC Dynamics using
LinearIrreversibleThermodynamicsofForcesand
Fluxes in IPMCs 14
1.7 ContinuumModelingofChargeTransportinIonic
Biopolymers 16
1.7.1 Basic Governing Equations in Charge
Transport 16
1.7.2 Constitutive Equation of Nernst–Planck 17
1.7.3 Actuation Mechanism 18
1.7.4 Sensing Mechanism 18
1.7.5 Charge Continuity Equation 19
1.7.6 Nernst–Planck Charge Equilibrium
Equations 19
RSCSmartMaterialsNo.17
IonicPolymerMetalComposites(IPMCs):SmartMulti-FunctionalMaterialsand
ArtificialMuscles,Volume1
EditedbyMohsenShahinpoor
rTheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2016
PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org
ix
x Contents
1.7.7 Poisson’s Equation 19
1.7.8 Poisson–Nernst–Planck Equation for
Charge Dynamics 20
1.8 Performance Characteristics 20
1.8.1 Mechanical Performance 20
1.9 Electrical Performance and Equivalent Circuit
Considerations 23
1.10 Back Relaxation Phenomenon in IPMCs and
How to Prevent It 27
1.11 IPMCsMadewithIonicLiquidsandEncapsulation
of IPMCs 28
1.12 Improved IPMC Performance 28
1.13 A View from Linear Irreversible Thermodynamics 33
1.14 Thermodynamic Efficiency 35
1.15 Cryogenic Properties of IPMNCs 37
1.16 Internal and External Circulatory Properties of
IPMCs 37
1.16.1 IPMC-equipped Biomimetic Robotic
Artificial Venus Flytrap 42
1.17 Near-DC Mechanical Sensing and Energy
Harvesting Capabilities of IPMNCs in Flexing,
Bending and Compression Modes 45
1.18 Advances in Force Density Optimization by
Pre-stretching 47
1.19 Biopolymeric IPMCs 50
1.20 Conclusions 50
References 51
Chapter 2 Ionic Polymer Metal Composites (IPMCs) Optimal
Manufacturing 61
Mohsen Shahinpoor
2.1 Introduction 61
2.2 IMPC Base Materials 63
2.2.1 General Considerations 63
2.2.2 Water Structure within the IPMC Base
Materials 68
2.3 IPMC Manufacturing Methodologies 71
2.3.1 General Considerations on IPMC
Manufacturing 71
2.3.2 IPMC Manufacturing Recipe 77
2.3.3 3D IPMC Production Procedure 82
