Ion beams in materials processing and analysis

424 Pages·2012·12.804 MB·English

by  Bernd Schmidt, Klaus Wetzig

Ion Beams in Materials Processing
and Analysis
.
(cid:1)
Bernd Schmidt Klaus Wetzig
Ion Beams in Materials
Processing and Analysis
BerndSchmidt KlausWetzig
Helmholtz-ZentrumDresden-Rossendorf Leibniz-Institutfu¨rFestko¨rper-und
Dresden Werkstoffforschung
Germany Dresden
Germany
ISBN978-3-211-99355-2 ISBN978-3-211-99356-9(eBook)
ISBN(Mycopy):978-3-211-99357-6
DOI10.1007/978-3-211-99356-9
SpringerWienHeidelbergNewYorkDordrechtLondon
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2012952142
#Springer-VerlagWien2013
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Preface
Ion beam technologies have been established as indispensable tools in modern
materials research, development, and production, being employed for both the
modification and the characterization of surfaces and thin films of solids. At
present,theionbeamisoneofthemostfascinatingandleadingtoolsformaterials
processing,surfaceandthinfilmpreparation,andalsoformaterialsanalysis.Ions
have been successfully applied in particular in micro- and nanoelectronics since
closetohalfacentury,andtheyareincurrentuseinnumerousadditionalareasof
highsocioeconomicimportance.Examplesareinvestigationsformaterialsoptimi-
zation and waste disposal in nuclear fission and fusion research, the treatment of
prosthetic components and radiation cancer therapy in the health area, and ion-
based analytics both in environmental studies and for the characterization and
preservationofculturalheritage.Fastionsalsoplayanincreasingroleinemerging
technologies which operate at the nanometer scale, such as for mechanical and
chemical sensors and new photovoltaic materials, for nanopatterning, and, more
general, for the creation and analysis of surfaces and thin films with tailored
electrical,optical,ormagneticproperties.
The above applications of ion beam technologies rely on fundamental knowl-
edgeofion–surfaceinteractionwhichhasbeenmainlyestablishedduringthepast
50 years. Consequently, the methodology of ion beam application is no longer a
broad topic of forefront research, so that the academic training can no longer be
considered as a sufficient source of expertise and educational material. In this
context,theaimofthepresentbookistoprovideacompactone-volumeoverview
of the fundamentals of ion beam technologies and the most prominent areas of
application. It shall address a broad audience of readers such as researchers,
developers,andoperatorsofboththepublicandtheprivatesector,whoareactive
insolid-stateandatomicphysics,electronics,andmaterialsresearchandengineer-
ing,orinthefieldofmodernfunctionalmaterialsandtheirprocessing.Inparticular,
it may serve as a compendium for newcomers and interdisciplinary scientists and
engineers. In this way, we hope to fill a gap on the international scientific book
market and to promote the application of ion beams as a modern essential and
sensitivemicrotoolinmaterialsresearchandtechnology.
Thisbookisaresultoflong-lastingprofessionalexperienceoftheauthors.Most
recently,KlausWetzigworkedasDirectoroftheInstituteofSolidStateAnalytics
andStructuralResearchatLeibniz-Institutf€urFestk€orper-undWerkstoffforschung
v
vi Preface
Dresden. Bernd Schmidt acts as head of the Process Technology Division at
Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf. Naturally, numerous specific results
fromtheirresearchgroupsenterthepresentvolume.
The fruitful interaction with numerous colleagues has been essential for the
compilation of this book. Only afew of them can be particularly mentioned here.
The authors are grateful to a number of people from the Helmholtz-Zentrum
Dresden-Rossendorf who have contributed to this book by their experimental and
theoretical works. These people include Prof. Wolfhard M€oller, Dr. Johannes von
Borany, Dr. Wolfgang Skorupa, Dr. Viton Heera, Dr. Lothar Bischoff, Prof.
Andreas Kolitsch, Dr. Chavket Akhmadaliev, Dr. Rainer Gr€otzschel, Dr. Michael
Zier,andDr.ChristianNeelmeijeraswellasMrs.Dr.FineFiedler,Dr.Karl-Heinz
Heinig,andDr.MathiasPosselt.Thesecolleaguesaregratefullyacknowledgedfor
cooperation and numerous discussions. Furthermore, the authors are indebted to
Prof. Wolfgang Hauffe (Dresden) for fruitful discussions and the transfer
of micrographs on ion beam slope cutting. Also thanks to Dr. Steffen Oswald,
Dr.SiegfriedMenzel,andDr.J€urgenThomas(allLeibnizInstitutIFWDresden)for
experimentalcooperation.K.W.inparticularexpresseshisgratitudetoMrs.Anne
Job (Dresden) for her qualified and great engagement in preparing a lot of
illustrationsforthisbook,suchasschematicviews,sectiondrawings,anddiagrams.
B.S.isgratefultoMariaSchmidtforhertechnicalhelptocompileChaps.3and4.
Finally,theauthorsaregratefulforthehelpandsupportprovidedbyDr.Alois
Sillaber, BSc. Stephen Soehnlen, and Mrs. Mag. Eva-Maria Oberhauser from
Springer-VerlagGmbHWienduringthisproject.
Dresden,April2012 BerndSchmidtandKlausWetzig
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Ion–SolidInteractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 FundamentalPrinciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 BinaryElasticCollisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 IonStopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 IonChanneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 IonInducedTargetModifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5.1 IonImplantation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5.2 IonMixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5.3 IonSputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 28
3 IonBeamTechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 PrinciplesofIonAcceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.1 LowEnergyIonAccelerators(IonImplanters) . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.2 HighEnergyIonAccelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2 IonSources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.1 HotFilament(HotCathode)IonSources . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.2 ColdCathodeIonSource(PenningIonSource) . . . . . . . 43
3.2.3 HighFrequency(RF)IonSource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.4 DuoplasmatronIonSource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.5 IonSourcesforElectrostaticAccelerators . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2.6 CesiumSputteringIonSource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2.7 FieldEvaporationorLiquidMetalIonSources . . . . . . . . 48
3.2.8 BeamExtractionfromIonSources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.3 IonAcceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4 IonBeamHandling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4.1 IonMassSeparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4.2 IonBeamFocusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4.3 IonBeamScanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4.4 IonBeamCurrentMeasurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4.5 IonDetection(Detectors,Spectrometers) . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.5 IonImplantationSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.5.1 CommonLowEnergyBeamLineImplanters . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5.2 SpecializedLow EnergyBeamLineImplanters . . . . . . . 84
vii
viii Contents
3.5.3 HighEnergyBeamLineImplanters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.5.4 Plasma-BasedIonImplanters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.6 ElectrostaticIonAcceleratorSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.6.1 Single-StageElectrostaticAccelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6.2 Two-StageElectrostaticAccelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.7 FocusedIonBeamSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.7.1 LowEnergyFocusedIonBeams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.7.2 HighEnergyFocusedIonBeams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 110
4 MaterialsProcessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.1 IonIrradiationEffectsinCrystallineMaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.1.1 DepthProfilesandIonChanneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.1.2 Implantation-InducedCrystalDamage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.1.3 SputteringEffectsandImplantedProfileChange . . . . . . 125
4.1.4 RadiationDamageAnnealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.2 IonImplantationintoSemiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.2.1 IonImplantationintoSilicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.2.2 IonImplantationintoGermanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.2.3 IonImplantationintoCompoundSemiconductors . . . . . . 162
4.3 IonBeamSynthesisofNewPhasesinSolids . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. 168
4.3.1 BuriedInsulatingLayersinSilicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.3.2 IonBeam-SynthesizedSilicideLayers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.3.3 IonBeamSynthesisofNanocrystalsinInsulators . . . . . . 183
4.4 IonBeamMixingofInterfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4.5 IonBeamSlicingofThinLayers
(Smart-CutforSOIandSolarCells) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.6 IonBeamErosion,Sputtering,andSurfacePatterning
(RipplesandDots) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.7 IonBeamShapingofNanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.8 IonBeamProcessingofOtherMaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.8.1 IonImplantationintoMetals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.8.2 IonImplantationintoPolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.8.3 IonImplantationintoInsulatingOpticalMaterials . . . . . 233
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 235
5 IonBeamPreparationofMaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
5.1 RemovalofTargetAtomsbySputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
5.2 EffectsonSputteringYield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.2.1 IonEnergyandIonAtomicNumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
5.2.2 IonIncidentDirection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.2.3 SelectiveSputteringDuetoIonChanneling . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.2.4 TargetMaterial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.2.5 PreferentialSputtering . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. 264
5.3 PreparationStepsbyIonBeamIrradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
5.3.1 IonBeam-InducedCleaningandEtching . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Contents ix
5.3.2 IonBeam-InducedMaterialDeposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
5.3.3 IonBeam-InducedDepthProfiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
5.3.4 IonBeamCutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
5.3.5 IonBeamThinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
5.4 FocusedIonBeamPreparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
5.4.1 FIB-InducedCross-SectionPreparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.4.2 FIB-BasedThinFilmPreparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
5.4.3 LimitingEffectsatFIBPreparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 298
6 MaterialsAnalysisbyIonBeams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.1 Introduction . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 301
6.2 IonBeamAnalyticalTechniques:ASurvey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
6.3 IonBeam-ScatteringTechniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
6.3.1 RutherfordBackscattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
6.3.2 Medium-EnergyIonScattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
6.3.3 Low-EnergyIonScattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
6.3.4 ElasticRecoilDetectionAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
6.4 IonBeam-InducedPhotonEmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6.4.1 Particle-InducedX-RayEmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
6.4.2 Particle-Inducedg-RayEmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
6.5 NuclearReactionAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
6.6 IonBeam-InducedElectronandLightEmission . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
6.7 SecondaryIonEmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
6.7.1 DynamicSecondaryIonMassSpectrometry
(DynamicSIMS) . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. 355
6.7.2 StaticSecondaryIonMassSpectrometry
(StaticSIMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
6.7.3 SputteredNeutralParticleMassSpectrometry . . . . . . . . 361
6.8 IonBeamImagingTechniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
6.8.1 FieldIonMicroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
6.8.2 IonMicroscopywithStationaryIonBeam . . . . . . . . . . . 367
6.8.3 ScanningIonMicroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 372
7 SpecialIonBeamApplicationsinMaterialsAnalysis
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
7.1 FunctionalThinFilmsandLayers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 377
7.1.1 DirectStudyofDiffusionProcessesinAmorphous
ThinLayerSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
7.1.2 NanoanalyticalInvestigationsofTunnel
MagnetoresistanceLayers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
7.2 IonBeamAnalysisinArtandArcheometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
7.3 SpecialApplicationsinLifeSciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 408
Index . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. 413
.