Table Of Content0131249401_COVER 14/9/05 9:56 PM Page 1
Introduction to
Research Methods
Introduction to
and Statistics in Psychology
Ronald A. McQueen and Christina Knusen Research
Introduction to Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology is a new type of textbook.
It is almost entirely student-centred, eminently practical and brings together a wealth of
Methods
experience in the teaching of undergraduate research.
This book is not just a guide to the conduct of psychological research, it is also an effective
suport system for the particular problems, concerns and fears encountered by most students and Statistics
at some point in their research lives.
In structure, the book is divided into a number of well-defined parts, each dealing with a major
element of the research proces and combining to produce a step-by-step guide for the student in Psychology
embarking on a major piece of undergraduate research. The main topics covered are:
■ Beginning a research project: literature reviews and research questions.
■ Designing a study: choosing between quantitative and qualitative, experimental and
correlational methods.
■ Carrying out a study: procedural issues, methods, ethics, questionnaires and standardised
tests.
■ Descriptive statistics: coding, screening data, graphs and tables, and an introduction to
SPSS for Windows.
■ Qualitative research methods: types of data, qualitative analyses.
■ Inferential statistics: chi-square, t-tests, one and two-way ANOVA, repeated measures tests,
correlation and simple regression, partial correlation and multiple regression, non-parametric
tests and a complete SPSS guide to statistical analysis.
■ Writing up research: reporting findings, structuring a research report, writing up qualitative
research, and giving presentations.
The book, alongside its website, provides a complete introduction to research methods and
statistics, taking the student well beyond entry level, with a treatment of statistical analysis to
satisfy the needs of even final year students. Ronald A.McQueen
Ronald A. McQueen and Christina Knussen teach in the Department of Psychology, Glasgow Christina Knussen
Caledonian University.
Additional student support at Additional student support at
www.pearsoned.co.uk/mcqueen www.pearsoned.co.uk/mcqueen
www.pearson-books.com
McQueen Introduction to
Knussen Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology
Cover image © Getty Images
IRMS_A01.QXD 9/23/05 2:47 PM Page i
Introduction to Research Methods
and Statistics in Psychology
Visit the Introduction to Research Methods and Statistics in
Psychology Companion Website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/
mcqueen to find valuable student learning material including:
■ Multiple choice questions to help test your learning
■ Links to relevant sites on the web
■ Data Sets for all examples used in the book
■ Quick Guides to give students a succinct procedural summary on
one page
■ Crosswords to help with familiarisation of key terms and to encour-
age independent thinking
■ Flashcards to test your understanding of key terms
■ Beginner’s Toolkit that outlines crucial points for the nervous beginner
IRMS_A01.QXD 9/23/05 2:47 PM Page ii
We work with leading authors to develop the strongest
educational materials in psychology, bringing cutting-
edge thinking and best learning practice to a global
market.
Under a range of well-known imprints, including
Prentice Hall, we craft high quality print and electronic
publications which help readers to understand and
apply their content, whether studying or at work.
To find out more about the complete range of our
publishing, please visit us on the World Wide Web at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk
IRMS_A01.QXD 9/23/05 2:47 PM Page iii
Introduction to Research Methods
and Statistics in Psychology
Ronald A. McQueen
Christina Knussen
IRMS_A01.QXD 9/23/05 2:47 PM Page iv
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England
and Associated Companies throughout the world
Visit us on the World Wide Web at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk
First published 2006
© Pearson Education Limited 2006
The rights of Ronald A. McQueen and Christina Knussen to
be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by
them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the
prior written permission of the publisher or a licence
permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued
by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham
Court Road, London W1T 4LP.
All trademarks used herein are the property of their
respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text
does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark own-
ership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such
trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of
this book by such owners.
ISBN-13: 978–0–13–124940–0
ISBN-10: 0–13–124940–1
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
McQueen, R. A.
Introduction to research methods and statistics in psychology / Ronald A. McQueen,
Christina Knussen.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0–13–124940–1
1. Psychology—Research—Methodology—Textbooks. 2. Psychometrics—Textbooks.
I. Knussen, Christina. II. Title.
BF76.5. M385 2006
150⬘.72—dc22
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 20050552349
10 09 08 07 06
Typeset in 10/12 pt Times by 72 by GGS Book Services, Atlantic Highlands
Printed and bound by Ashford Colour Press, Gosport, Hants.
The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.
IRMS_A01.QXD 9/23/05 2:47 PM Page v
Contents
Preface xi
Guided tour xiv
Authors’Acknowledgements xvi
Publisher’s Acknowledgements xvii
Part 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 1 Introducing research 3
1.1 Psychology, a definition 3
1.2 Psychology, its aims 3
1.3 Psychology, its scope 4
1.4 Research and scientific method 4
1.5 Beginning a research project 18
1.6 Reviewing the literature 21
1.7 Evaluating research 25
1.8 Structuring a research project 27
Review 27
Suggested further reading 27
Part 2 Planning a research project – the design 29
Chapter 2 The nature of research design 31
2.1 The purpose of a design 31
2.2 Problems with designs 32
2.3 The principles and language of design 33
2.4 The world of variables 34
2.5 Dependent variables (DVs) 34
2.6 Independent variables (IVs) 35
2.7 Extraneous variables 39
2.8 Controls 41
2.9 A medical model – the randomised controlled design 42
2.10 The double-blind control 42
2.11 Variables and levels of measurement 44
2.12 Levels of measurement 44
2.13 Nominal (category) scales 46
2.14 Ordinal scales 48
2.15 Ratio and interval scales 50
2.16 Changing the level of measurement 52
Review 54
Suggested further reading 54
v
IRMS_A01.QXD 9/23/05 2:47 PM Page vi
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Experimental research designs 55
3.1 Introduction to experimental research 55
3.2 Experimental design 56
3.3 Between-groups designs (independent groups designs) 57
3.4 Within-subjects designs (repeated measures designs) 60
3.5 Non-equivalent group (quasi-experimental) designs 65
3.6 Factorial designs 66
3.7 Randomised controlled designs revisited 68
3.8 Mixed designs 68
3.9 Some reservations on factorial designs 70
Review 71
Suggested further reading 71
Chapter 4 Correlational and regression designs 72
4.1 Correlational designs 72
4.2 The nature of correlation 73
4.3 The correlation coefficient 77
4.4 Coefficient of determination 77
4.5 Assumption of linearity 77
4.6 Misleading correlations 79
4.7 Partial correlation 81
4.8 Multiple correlation and regression 83
Review 85
Suggested further reading 85
Part 3 Carrying out research – methods and procedures 87
Chapter 5 The essentials of carrying out research – the participants 89
5.1 The role of procedure 89
5.2 The stuff of research – whom will you use? 90
5.3 Samples and populations 91
5.4 Sampling techniques 92
5.5 Non-probability sampling 94
5.6 Ensuring co-operation 100
5.7 Number of participants 101
5.8 Secondary research 113
5.9 Advantages of secondary research 113
5.10 Disadvantages of secondary research 114
Review 116
Suggested further reading 116
Chapter 6 Collecting data 117
6.1 Carrying out ethical research 117
6.2 Using questionnaires in research 124
6.3 Special techniques for information gathering 132
6.4 What you need to know about psychological tests 136
Review 149
Suggested further reading 149
IRMS_A01.QXD 9/23/05 2:47 PM Page vii
Contents vii
Part 4 Tables, figures and descriptive statistics 151
Chapter 7 Describing data – tables, graphs
and descriptive statistics 153
7.1 Using numbers to represent the psychological world 153
7.2 Making sense of numbers 154
7.3 Tables and categorical variables 154
7.4 Figures and categorical variables 156
7.5 Tables and continuous variables 160
7.6 The stemplot 163
7.7 Figures and continuous variables 165
7.8 Continuous variables and the boxplot 167
7.9 Statistics 172
7.10 Dispersion 175
7.11 The normal distribution 178
7.12 Practical implications 182
7.13 The standard normal distribution 183
Review 189
Chapter 8 Descriptive analysis and SPSS 190
8.1 Computer analysis and SPSS 190
8.2 Creating files in SPSS 191
8.3 Setting up data in SPSS 203
8.4 SPSS and descriptive statistics 206
8.5 Graphs and crosstabulated data 221
8.6 Screening data 224
Review 227
Suggested further reading 227
Part 5 Drawing inferences and testing hypotheses 229
Chapter 9 Introducing inferential statistics and tests
of differences 231
9.1 Inferential statistics 231
9.2 Tests of differences – between-groups comparisons,
repeated measures and ANOVA 247
Review 287
Suggested further reading 287
Chapter 10 Tests of association 288
10.1 The chi-square (χ2) test of association 288
10.2 Corelation 295
10.3 Simple regression 299
10.4 The coefficient of determination 302
10.5 Correlation and simple regression in SPSS 303
Review 309
Suggested further reading 309
IRMS_A01.QXD 9/23/05 2:47 PM Page viii
viii Contents
Chapter 11 Advanced analysis: Two-way ANOVA, partial correlation
and multiple regression 310
11.1 Two-way ANOVA 310
11.2 Locating an effect in ANOVA 313
11.3 Partial correlation 319
11.4 Multiple regression 324
Review 328
Suggested further reading 328
Part 6 Carrying out qualitative research 329
Chapter 12 Introducing qualitative research 331
12.1 The differences between qualitative and quantitative research 331
12.2 An example of a qualitative study 332
12.3 Qualitative or quantitative? 335
12.4 Representing the experiences of participants 335
12.5 Previous research 335
12.6 Availability of participants 336
12.7 Time factors 336
12.8 Your supervisor 337
12.9 Mixing methods 337
12.10 Some approaches to qualitative research 338
12.11 Qualitative approaches that involve the analysis of text 342
12.12 Planning a qualitative study 344
12.13 Other points to consider 349
12.14 Collecting data 352
12.15 Dealing with qualitative data 357
12.16 The quality of the research 360
12.17 Points to consider when writing up 361
Review 361
Suggested further reading 362
Part 7 Writing up research 363
Chapter 13 Writing up research 365
13.1 The purpose of a report 365
13.2 Writing guidelines 365
13.3 The structure of a psychology report 367
13.4 Tables and figures 383
13.5 Discussion 386
13.6 References 387
13.7 Appendices 390
13.8 Presentation and style 390
13.9 Writing up qualitative research 391
13.10 Guidelines on writing up qualitative research 391
13.11 Giving a presentation of your study 393
IRMS_A01.QXD 9/23/05 2:47 PM Page ix
Contents ix
13.12 Practicalities: Giving a presentation 394
13.13 Assessment 397
Review 399
Suggested further reading 399
Appendix A Area under the normal curve 401
Appendix B Critical values of U and U⬘ for a one-tailed test at ␣ ⫽ 0.025
or a two-tailed test at ␣ ⫽ 0.05 404
Appendix C Critical values of t 405
Appendix D Critical values of T 406
Appendix E Table of 2 407
Glossary 409
References and reading list 421
Index 425
Supporting resources
Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/mcqueen to find valuable online resources
Companion Website for students
■ Multiple choice questions to help test your learning
■ Links to relevant sites on the web
■ Data Sets for all examples used in the book
■ Quick Guides to give students a succinct procedural summary on one
page
■ Crosswords to help with familiarisation of key terms and to encourage
independent thinking
■ Flashcards to test your understanding of key terms
■ Beginner’s Toolkit that outlines crucial points for the nervous beginner
Also: The Companion Website provides the following features:
■ Search tool to help locate specific items of content
■ E-mail results and profile tools to send results of quizzes to instructors
■ Online help and support to assist with website usage and troubleshooting
For more information please contact your local Pearson Education sales
representative or visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/mcqueen
