Table Of ContentA. K i t a i g o r o d s k y
IN T R O D U C T IO N
T O
P H Y S IC S
First published 1963
Second Printing
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CONTENTS
Preface............................................................................................................. 15
PART ONE
MECHANICAL AND THERMAL MOTION
Chapter I. The Fundamental Law of Mechanics....................................... 19
1. Kinematics.................................................................................. 19
2. Force ........................................... 25
3. The Fundamental Law of Mechanics 28
4. Application of the Fundamental Law of Mechanics to Accel
erated Rectilinear M otion....................................................... 31
5. Application of the Fundamental Law of Mechanics to
Circular Motion.......................................................................... 34
6. The Effect of the Earth’s Rotation on Mechanical Phenomena 38
7. Data Necessary for the Solution of Problems in Mechanics 42
8. Constants of Proportionality and Dimensions of Physical
Quantities.................................................................................. 45
Chapter II. Mechanical Energy 47
9. Work .......................................................................................... 47
10. Kinetic Energy.......................................................................... 49
11. Potential Energy'....................................................................... 50
12. Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy....................... 55
13. Potential Curves. Equilibrium ........................................... 57
Chapter III. Momentum............................................................................... 61
14. Conservation of Momentum .............................-.................... 01
15. Centre of M ass........................................................................... 62
16. Collisions...................................................................................... 63
17. Recoil....................................... 70
Chapter IV. Rotation of aR igid B ody....................................................... 74
18. Kinetic Energy of Rotation................................................... 74
19. Moment of Inertia ................................................................... 76
20. Rotational Work and the Fundamental Equation of Rotation 78
21. Angular Momentum ............................................................... 81
22. Free Axes of Rotation............................................................... 84
23. The Gyroscope........................................................................... 86
6.a. Contents
Chapter V. Vibrations ................................................................................. 87
24. Small Deviations from equilibrium ................................... 87
25. Particular Cases of Vibrations............................................... 8(J
26. Transformation of Energy. Damped Vibrations.................... 92
27. Forced Vibrations ............................................................ . 95
28. Self-Sustained Vibrations . . . ........................................... 99
29. Addition of Parallel Vibrations............................................ 102
30. Vibration Spectrum.................................................................... 104
31. Addition of Mutually Perpendicular Vibrations................ 106
Chapter VI. Travelling Waves ................................................................... 110
32. Propagation of a Disturbance .................... 110
33. Generation of Wave M otion................................................... 113
34. Pressure and Velocity of Vibrations................................... 115
35. Energy Flux............................................................................... 117
36. Damping of Elastic W aves................................................... 120
37. Interference of Waves ....................................................... . 122
38. Principle of Huygens-Fresnel. Reflection and Refraction of
Waves............................................................................................ 123
39. Reflection Coefficient................................................................ 126
40. The Doppler Effect ................................................................ 128
Chapter VII. Standing Waves ................................................................... 130
41. Superposition of Two Waves Travelling in Opposite Directions 130
42. Free Vibrations of a R o d ........................................................ 132
43. Free Vibrations of Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional
System s........................................................................................ 134
44. Forced Vibrations of Rods and P lates.................................... 137
45. Piezoelectric Vibrations ............................................... 138
Chapter VIII. Acoustics................................................................................ 140
46. The Objective and Subjective Nature of Sound.................... 140
47. Intensity and Loudness of Sound.................................. 142
48. Architecture and Acoustics .........................................................^44
49. The Atmosphere and Acoustics................................................ 145
50. Ultrasonics.................................................................................... 148
Chapter IX. Temperature and Heat 150
51. Heat Equilibrium......................................................................... 150
52. Internal Energy........................ 151
53. The First Law of Thermodynamics .................................... 153
54. The Internal Energy of Microscopic Systems .................... 155
55. The Equation of State ............................................................ 156
. 56. The Equation of the Gas State ............................................ 158
57. The Equations of State of Actual Gases ............................ 160
Contents 7
Chapter X. Thermodynamic Processes . . ............................................... 163
r>8. Graphical Representation........................................... 163
59. Work and Cycles ................................... 165
60. Processes Involving a Change of Gas S ta le ........................ 166
61. The Joule-Thomson Process ............................................... 175
Chapter XI. Entropy................................................................................................ 177
, 62. The Principle of Entropy Existence...................................... 177
63. The Principle of Increasing Entropy ............................... 179
61. The Principle of Operation of a Meat Engine.................... 181
65. Efficiency of a Carnot Cycle................................................... 183
66. The Second Law of Thermodynamics....................... 186
Chayter XII. Kinetic Theory of Gases 188
67. General....................................................................................... 188
68. Mean Free P ath....................................................................... 190
69. Gas Pressure. Root-Mean-Square Velocity of Molecules . . 191
70. Internal Energy of a G a s....................................................... 195
71. Statistical Distribution........................................................... 197
72. Boltzmann’s Law ........................................................... * • 193
73. Distribution of Particles with Respect to Height in a Grav
itational Field ....................................................................... -90
74. Velocity Distribution of Molecules .................................... 202
75. Measurement of the Velocities of Gas Molecules..................... 204
76. Probability of a State ........................................... 20o
77. Irreversible Processes from the Molecular Viewpoint . . . 208
78. Fluctuations. Limits to the Application of the Second Law 209
Chapter XIII. Processes of Transition to Equilibrium 212
79. Diffusion .................................................................................... 212
80. Thermal Conductivity and Viscosity ................................ 214
81. Rate of Equalisation ............................................................ 216
82. Steady Processes .................................................................... 218
83. Motion in a Viscous Medium................................................ 220
84. Coefficients of Diffusion, Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity
for Gases .................................................................................... 222
85. Ultra-Rarefied Gases................................................................ 223
PART TWO
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Chapter XIV. Electric Fields . . . . 4 226
86. Vector Properties of Electric Fields: Intensity and Displace
ment ............................................................................................ 226
87. Permittivity................................................................................ 228
88. Electric Field Relations............................ 230
8 Contents
89. Field Calculations of Simple Systems ................................ 232
90. Electric Energy....................................................................... 243
91. Electron Radius and the Limitations of Classical Electro
dynamics .................................................................................. 240
92. Electric Forces....................................................................... 248
93. Dipole Moment of a System of Charges................................ 250
94. Polarisation of an Isotropic Dielectric................................ 253
95. Polarisation of Crystal Substances .................................... 256
96. Finite Dielectric Bodies in an Electric F ield ................ 258
Chapter XV. Magnetic Fields........................................................... 262
97. Magnetic Moment................... 262
98. Ampere Force.................................................................... 264
99. Force Acting on a Moving Charge................................. 266
100. Magnetic Fields Created by Permanent Magnets . . . . 268
101. Magnetic Field Intensity ................................................... 270
102. Interactions of Currents and M agnets......................... 272
103. Equivalence of Currents and M agnets......................... 275
104. Rotational Nature of a Magnetic F ield.......................... 277
105. Law of Electromagnetic Induction and Lorenlz Force . . . 281
106. Measurement of Magnetic Fields by Means of Induced
Impulses...................................................................................... 283
107. Finite Bodies in a Magnetic Field ................................... 286
108. Relationship Between Permeability and Susceptibility . . 289
109. Distortion of a Magnetic Field Due to the Presence of a Mag
netic Substance................................................................ 291
110. Magnetic Hysteresis......................................................... 293
Chapter XVI. Electromagnetic Fields. Maxwell’s Equations................ 297
111. Generalisation of the Law of Electromagnetic Induction . . 297
112. Displacement C urrent........................................................... 300
113. Nature of an Electromagnetic Field .................................. 304
Chapter XVII. Energy Transformations in Electromagnetic Fields . . . 306
114. Transformations in Steady Current Circuits................. 306
115. Transformations in a Closed Circuit of Variable Current . 308
116. Magnetic Energy of a Field............................................. 311
117. Electric Oscillations......................................................... 313
118. Electromagnetic Energy ....................................................... 316
119. Momentum and Pressure of an Electromagnetic Field . . 320
7tapter XVIII. Electromagnetic Radiation............................................... 322
120. Elementary Dipole ............................................................... 322
121. Antennas as Electric Dipoles^............................................... 323
122. Radiation Pattern of a Dipole ; ................................... 325
123. The Electromagnetic Spectrum..................................... 327
124. Quantum Nature of Radiation ........................................... 329
Contents
Chapter XIX. Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves 331
125. Dispersion anil Absorption.................................................. 331
12(1. Rehaviour of an Electromagnetic Wave at the Roundary
Relween Two Media ........................................................... 334
127. Natural and Polarised Light. Polarisation upon Reflection 337
128. Propagation of Light Waves in a Medium Having a Refrac
tive Index Gradient ............................................................... 339
129. Propagation of Radio W aves............................................... 342
130. Radar ........................................................................................... 344
Chapter XX. Interference Phenomena ....................................................... 347
131. Addition of Waves from Two Sources................................... 347
349-
132. Coherence ...................................................................................
133. Interference in a P la te ........................................................... 352
134. Fringes Representing Equal Thickness and Fringes Repre
senting Equal Inclination....................................................... 354
135. Practical Applications of Interference............................... 358-
363
Chapter XXI. Scattering ...................................................
363
136. Secondary Radiation ...........................................................
137. Wave Diffraction at Apertures ........................................... 364
138. A System of Randomly Distributed Scallerers................ 369-
139. Behaviour of a Perfectly Homogeneous Medium . . . . 371
37:4
140. Scattering in a Nonliomogeneous Medium .......................
141. Diffraction Grating .............................................................. 375
142. Directed Radiators of Radio W aves........................^ • 380-
Chapter XXII. Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals................................... 383-
143. Crystals as Diffraction Gratings........................................... 383
144. Determination of the Parameters of a Crystal C ell................ 3S6
145. Intensity of Diffracted Beams ......................................... • 387
146. Methods of X-Ray Analysis . ............................................ 389
Chapter XXIII. Double Refraction........................................................... 393
147. Anisotropic Polarisabilily ................................................... 393
148. Propagation of Light in Uniaxial Crystals........................ 396
149. Polarisers. Investigation of the Polarised Slate of Light 401
150. A Crystal Plate Between "Crossed” Nicol Prism s................ 403-
151. Double Refraction Due to an External Action.................... 406
152. Optical Activity ................................................................... 408
153. Basic Theory of Optical Activity....................................... 410-
Chapter XXIV. The Theory of Relativity ............................................... 414
154. Basic Theory ........................................................................... 414
155. Experimental Verification of the Principle of Constancy
of the Velocity of L ight............................................................ 415-
156. Time in the Theory of Relativity....................................... 419>
10 Contents
157. M ass.......................................................................................... 421
158. Energy....................................................................................... 422
159. Mass Defect............................................................................... 423
160. The Principle of Equivalence and the General Theory of
Relativity................................................................................... 424
Chapter XXV. The Quantum Nature of a Field.................................... 427
161. Photons...................................................................................... 427
162. Photoelectric Effect ............................. 429
163. Fluctuations in Luminous F lu x ......................... 432
164. Kirchhoff’s Law....................................................................... 433
165. Black-Body Radiation . . *................................................. 435
166. The Theory of Thermal Radiation......................................... 437
P A R T T II REE
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Chapter XXVI. Streams of Charged Particles....................................... 443
167. Motion of Charged Particles in Electric and Magnetic Fields 443
168. Ionised Gas............................................................................... 446
169. Electric Discharges in a G a s............................................... 448
170. Beams of Charged Particles ............................................... 451
171. Electron Lenses....................................................................... 453
172. The Electron Microscope ................................................... 455
173. Electron and Ion Projectors ............................................... 460
174. The Electron-Beam Tube ................................................... 462
175. Mass Spectrograph ............................................................... 464
176. Accelerators of Charged Particles....................................... 466
177. Auto-Phasing .......................................................................... 467
178. Proton and Electron Synchrotrons ................................... 469
Chapter XXVII. The Wave Properties of Microparticles 471
179. Diffraction of Electrons....................................... 471
. 180. The Fundamental Concepts of Quantum Mechanics . . . . 473
181. The Uncertainty Principle................................................... 475
182. The Potential Square W ell................................................... 479
183. Significance of the Solution of the Schrodinger Equation 483
184. Tunnelling Through a B arrier........................................... 484
Chapter XXVIII. Atomic Structure........................... 486
185. Energy Levels of a Hydrogen A tom ................................... 486
186. Quantum Numbers ............................................................... 489
187. The Electron Cloud of s and p States ............................... 491
188. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle ............................................... 492
189. Deflection of an Atomic Beam in a Magnetic Field . . . . 494
190. Electron S pin.......................................................................... 496
Contents 1 f
191. Magnetic Moments of Atoms................................................... 498
192. The Mendeleyev Periodic L aw ............................................... 500
193. Ionisation Potentials ........................................................... 501
194. Atomic Spectra in the Optical Region................................ 502
195. Atomic X-Ray Spectra ............................................................ 504
Chapter XXIX. Molecules ........................................................................... 508
196. Chemical Bonds....................................................................... 508
197. Geometries of Molecules........................................................ 511
198. The Electronic Cloud of a Molecule.................................... 514
199. Energy Levels of Molecules ............................................... 51(5
200. The Rotational Spectrum of Molecules ............................ 518
201. Infrared Vibration-Rotational Spectra.................................. 521
202. Raman Scattering of Light ................................................ 525
203. Electron Spectrum................................................................... 528
Chapter XXX. Atomic N uclei................................................................... 531
204. Experimental Methods of Nuclear Physics........................ 531
205. Nuclear Particles ................................................................... 538
200. Mass and Energy of an Atomic Nucleus............................... 539
207. Radioactivity........................................................................... 542
208. Spi-n and Magnetic Moment of a Nucleus............................ 546
209. Magnetic Resonance............................................................... 548
210. Quadrupole Resonance........................................................... 550
211. Nucleon Interaction Forces ............................................... 553
212. Nucleons in a Nucleus ....................................................... 554
213. Interaction of Fast Electrons............................................... 555
214. Meson Theory of Nuclear Interaction............................... 557
215. Mesons....................................................................................... 558
210. Relativistic Theory of an Electron................................... 559
217. Creation and Annihilation of Pairs of Particles................ 561
218. Particles and Anti-Particles ............................................. 562
219. Asymmetry of Elementary Particles.................................... 565
Chapter XXXI. Nuclear Transformations ............................................. 567
220. General Laws of Chemical and Nuclear Transformations 567
221. Nuclear Reactions................................................................... 569
222. Fission Reactions of Heavy N uclei.................................... 571
223. Chain Reactions....................................................................... 573
224. Principle of Operation of a Nuclear Reactor........................ 575
225. Artificial Radioactive Products........................................... 578
226. Thermonuclear Reactions....................................................... 581
Chapter XXXII. Atomic Structure of Bodies............................................ 584
227. Polycrystalline Substances and Monocrystals.................... 584
228. Space L attice.......................................................................... 585
12 Contents
229. Cell Selection and Crystal Symmetry................................... 590
230. The Packing of Particles in a Crystal................................... 594
231. Molecular Crystals ............................................................... 596
232. Compact Packing of Spheres............................................... 599
233. Examples of Crystal Structures........................................... (501
234. Thermal Vibrations in a Crystal........................................... 004
235. Thermal W aves....................................................................... GOT
236. Thermal Expansion ............................................................... 609
237. Crystal Imperfections ........................................................... 611
238. Short-Range Order. Liquids................................................... 615
239. Amorphous Bodies................................................................... 617
240. Short- and Long-Range Order of Atoms in Alloys . . . . 619
241. Liquid Crystals ................................................................... 621
242. Polymers................................................................................... 622
Chapter XXXIII. Phase Transformations 625
243. Phase Diagrams...................................................................... 625
244. Phase Transformations........................................................... 627
245. Phase Stability...................................................................... 629
246. Metastable States ................................................................... 631
247. Gas ^ Liquid Transformations........................................... 633
248. Liquefaction of G ases........................................................... 635
249. Gas Crystal Transformations........................................... 636
250. Liquid ^ Crystal Transformations ................................... 637
251. Crystal Crystal Transformations ................................... 640
252. Diffusion in Solids.................................................................. 642
Chapter XXXIV. Deformations of Bodies 645
253. Elastic Properties................................................................... 645
254. Plastic Properties .................................................................. 646
255. Ultimate Strength................................................................... 649
256. Mechanical Properties of a.Polycrystalline Material . . . 649
257. The Effect of Surf ace-Active Substances on Deformation . . 650
258. Material Breakdown Under the Action of a Stream of Par
ticles .......................................................................................... 652
Chapter XXXV. Dielectrics........................................................................ 654
259. The Relationship Between Permittivity and the Polarisabil-
ity of a Molecule .................................................................. 654
260. Polarisation of Polar and Nonpolar Molecules.................... 657
261. Additivity of Molecular Refraction ................................... 660
262. Pyroelectric and Piezoelectric M aterials........................... 662
Chapter XXXVI. Magnetic Substances ................................................... 666
263. Three Groups of Magnetic Substances........................... 666
264. Diamagnetism...................................................................... 666
