Table Of ContentPearson New International Edition
Introducing Psychology
Brain, Person, Group
Stephen M. Kosslyn Robin S. Rosenberg
Fourth Edition
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ISBN 10: 1-292-04252-4
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-04252-7
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ISBN 10: 1-292-04252-4
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P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R AR Y
Table of Contents
Glossary
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 1
1. Introduction to the Science of Psychology
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 15
2. The Biology of Mind and Behavior
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 55
3. Sensation and Perception
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 95
4. Learning
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 133
5. Memory
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 169
6. Language, Thinking, and Intelligence
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 207
7. Emotion and Motivation
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 257
8. Personality
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 295
9. Psychology Over the Life Span
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 331
10. Stress, Health, and Coping
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 373
11. Social Psychology
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 413
Appendix
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 449
I
456271
References
Stephen M. Kosslyn/Robin S. Rosenberg 467
Index 521
II
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Glossary
Absolute threshold: The magnitude ofthe stimulus needed,on Amphetamines: A class ofsynthetic stimulants.
average,for an observer to detect it halfthe time it is present. Amplitude: The height ofthe peaks in a light wave or sound wave.
Academic psychologists: Psychologists who focus on teaching Amygdala: A subcortical structure that plays a special role in fear
and conducting research. and is involved in other types ofstrong emotions,such as anger.
Accommodation (in the eye): The automatic adjustment ofthe Androgens: Sex hormones that lead the body to develop many
eye for seeing at particular distances,which occurs when muscles male characteristics,such as beard growth and a low voice.
adjust the shape ofthe lens so that it focuses incoming light to- Anorexia nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by the
ward the back ofthe eye (the retina). refusal to maintain even a low normal weight,along with an
Accommodation (in Piaget’s theory): The process that results in intense fear ofgaining weight.
schemas’changing or the creation ofnew schemas,as necessary to Antagonist: A chemical that blocks the effect ofa neurotrans-
cope with a broader range ofsituations. mitter.
Acquisition: In classical conditioning,the initial learning ofthe Anterograde amnesia: Amnesia that leaves consolidated mem-
conditioned response (CR). ories intact but prevents the storing ofnew facts.
Action potential: The shifting change in charge that moves Antipsychotic medication: Medication that reduces psychotic
down the axon. symptoms.
Activation-synthesis hypothesis: The theory that dreams arise Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD): A personality disorder
from random bursts ofnerve cell activity that may affect brain characterized by a long-standing pattern ofdisregard for other
cells involved in hearing and seeing;the brain attempts to make people to the point ofviolating their rights.
sense ofthis hodgepodge ofstimuli,resulting in the experience of Anxiety disorders: A category ofdisorders characterized by in-
dreams. tense or pervasive anxiety or fear,or extreme attempts to avoid
Active interaction: Occurs when people choose,partly based on the feelings.
genetic tendencies,to put themselves in specific situations and to Applied psychologists: Psychologists who use the principles,
avoid others. findings,and theories ofpsychology to improve products and
Activity: A temperament dimension characterized by the prefer- procedures and who conduct research to help solve specific prac-
ence for a particular activity level,which has two components: tical problems.
vigor (intensity ofthe activity) and tempo (speed ofthe activity). Approach–approach conflict: The internal conflict that occurs
Acute stressor: A stressor that has a short-term duration. when competing alternatives are equally positive.
Adaptation: An inherited characteristic that increases an organ- Approach–avoidance conflict: The internal conflict that occurs
ism’s ability to survive and reproduce successfully. when a course ofaction has both positive and negative aspects.
Adolescence: The period between the onset ofpuberty and, Assimilation: In Piaget’s theory,the process that allows the use
roughly,the end ofthe teenage years. ofexisting schemas to organize and interpret new stimuli and
Adoption study: A study in which characteristics ofchildren respond appropriately.
adopted at birth are compared to those oftheir adoptive parents Atherosclerosis: A medical condition characterized by the
or siblings versus their biological parents or siblings. buildup ofplaque on the inside walls ofthe arteries.
Affirming the consequent: A reasoning error that occurs when a Attachment: An emotional bond that leads a person to want to
person assumes that a specific cause is present because a particu- be with someone else and to miss him or her when separated.
lar result has occurred. Attention: The act offocusing on particular information,which
Afterimage: The image left behind by a previous perception. allows it to be processed more fully than what is not attended to.
Aggression: Behavior that is intended to harm another living Attentional blink: A rebound period in which a person cannot pay
being who does not wish to be harmed. attention to a second stimulus after having just paid attention to an-
Agonist: A chemical that mimics the effects ofa neurotransmit- other one (which need not be the same as the second stimulus).
ter by activating a type ofreceptor. Attitude: An overall evaluation ofsome aspect ofthe world—
Agoraphobia: A condition in which people fear or avoid places people,issues,or objects.
that might be difficult to leave should panic symptoms occur. Attribution: An explanation for the cause ofan event or behavior.
Alarm phase: The first phase ofthe GAS,in which a stressor is Attributional bias: A tendency to make certain types ofattribu-
perceived and the fight-or-flight response is activated. tions;this sort ofbias generally occurs outside ofconscious
Alcohol myopia: The disproportionate influence ofimmediate ex- awareness.
perience on behavior and emotion due to the effects ofalcohol use. Attributional style: A person’s characteristic way ofexplaining
Algorithm: A set ofsteps that,iffollowed methodically,will life events.
guarantee the correct solution to a problem. Automatic processing: Processing that allows you to carry out a
All-or-none law: States that ifthe neuron is sufficiently stimu- sequence ofsteps without having to pay attention to each one or
lated,it fires,sending the action potential all the way down the to the relations between the steps;relies on implicit memories.
axon and releasing chemicals from the terminal buttons;either Autonomic nervous system (ANS): Controls the smooth muscles
the action potential occurs or it doesn’t. in the body,some glandular functions,and many ofthe body’s
Allostatic load: The cumulative wear and tear on the body nec- self-regulating activities,such as digestion and circulation.
essary to maintain homeostasis in the face ofstressors. Availability heuristic: The strategy in which we judge objects or
Altruism: The motivation to increase another person’s welfare. events as more likely,common,or frequent ifthey are easier to
Amnesia: A loss ofmemory over an entire time span. retrieve from memory.
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Glossary
Avoidance learning: In classical conditioning,learning that Bottom-up processing: Processing that is triggered by physical
occurs when a CS is paired with an unpleasant US that leads the energy striking receptor cells.
animal to try to avoid the CS. Brain circuit: A set ofneurons that work together to receive
Avoidance–avoidance conflict: The internal conflict that occurs input,operate on it in some way,and produce specific output.
when competing alternatives are equally unpleasant. Brain system: A set ofbrain circuits that work together to
Axon: The sending end ofthe neuron;the long cablelike struc- accomplish a particular task.
ture extending from the cell body. Brainstem: The set ofstructures at the base ofthe brain—
including the midbrain,medulla,and pons—that feed into and
B cell: A type ofwhite blood cell that matures in the bone marrow. receive information from the spinal cord.
Basal ganglia: Subcortical structures that play a role in planning, Breadth ofprocessing: Processing that organizes and integrates
learning new habits,and producing movement. new information into previously stored information,often by
Base-rate rule: The rule stating that ifsomething is chosen at ran- making associations.
dom from a set,the chance that the thing will be ofa particular type Bulimia nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by recur-
is directly proportional to the percentage ofthat type in the set. rent episodes ofbinge eating,followed by attempts to prevent
Basic emotion: An innate emotion that is shared by all humans. weight gain.
Basic level (ofa concept): An intermediate level ofspecificity Bystander effect: The decrease in offers ofassistance that occurs
that is usually the most likely to be applied to an object. as the number ofbystanders increases.
Behavior: The outwardly observable acts ofa person,alone or
in a group. Case study: A scientific study that focuses on a single partici-
Behavior modification: A technique in which behavior is pant,examining his or her psychological characteristics (at any or
changed through the use ofsecondary reinforcers. all ofthe levels ofanalysis) in detail.
Behavior modification: Therapeutic techniques that use operant Castration anxiety: A boy’s fear that,as punishment for loving
conditioning principles to change behavior. mother and hating father,his father will cut offhis penis.
Behavior therapy: A type oftherapy,based on well-researched Categorical perception: Automatically grouping sounds as mem-
learning principles,that focuses on modifying observable,meas- bers ofdistinct categories that correspond to the basic units ofspeech.
urable behaviors. Categorical variables: Variables that assign measurements to dis-
Behavioral genetics: The field in which researchers attempt to crete classes.
determine the extent to which the differences among people’s be- Cell body: The central part ofa neuron (or other cell),which
haviors and psychological characteristics are due to their different contains the nucleus.
genes or to differences in their environments. Cell membrane: The skin that surrounds a cell.
Behaviorism: The school ofpsychology that focuses on how a Central executive: The set ofprocesses in WM that transforms
specific stimulus (object,person,or event) evokes a specific re- and interprets information in one or another oftwo specialized
sponse (behavior in reaction to the stimulus). STMs during planning,reasoning,and problem solving.
Beliefin a just world: An attributional bias that assumes that Central nervous system (CNS): The spinal cord and the brain.
people get what they deserve. Central tendency: A descriptive statistic that indicates the clus-
Benzodiazepine: A type ofantianxiety medication that reduces tering ofthe most characteristic values or scores for a particular
symptoms ofpanic within 36 hours and does not need to be group or sample.
taken for more than a week to be effective. Cerebellum: A large structure at the base ofthe brain that is
Bias (in research studies): When conscious or unconscious concerned in part with physical coordination,estimating time,
beliefs,expectations,or habits alter how participants in a study and paying attention.
respond or affect how a researcher sets up or conducts a study, Cerebral cortex: The convoluted pinkish-gray outer layer ofthe
thereby influencing its outcome. brain where most mental processes arise.
Bias (in signal detection theory): A person’s willingness to decide Cerebral hemisphere: A left or right half-brain,shaped roughly
that he or she has detected a stimulus. like halfa sphere.
Bibliotherapy: The use ofself-help books and audio and video Chemical senses: Smell and taste,which rely on sensing the
information for therapeutic purposes. presence ofspecific chemicals.
Big Five: The five superfactors ofpersonality—extraversion, Child-directed speech (CDS): Speech by caregivers to babies that
neuroticism,agreeableness,conscientiousness,and openness— relies on short sentences with clear pauses,careful enunciation,
determined by factor analysis. exaggerated intonation,and a high-pitched voice.
Binocular cues: Cues to the distance ofan object that arise from Chronic stressor: A stressor that has a long-term duration.
both eyes working together. Chunk: An organized unit ofinformation,such as a digit,letter,
Biological preparedness: A built-in readiness for certain pre- or word.
viously neutral stimuli to come to elicit particular conditioned re- Circadian rhythms: The body’s daily fluctuations in response to
sponses,which means that less training is necessary to produce the cycle ofdark and light.
learning when these neutral stimuli are paired with the appropri- Classical conditioning: A type oflearning that occurs when a
ate unconditioned responses. neutral stimulus becomes associated (paired) with a stimulus that
Bipolar disorders: A set ofmood disorders characterized either causes a reflexive behavior,and,in time,this neutral stimulus is
by one or more episodes ofmania,or by alternating episodes of sufficient to elicit—draw out from the animal—that behavior.
hypomania and depression. Client-centered therapy: A type ofinsight-oriented therapy that
Bisexual: A person who is sexually attracted to members ofboth focuses on people’s potential for growth and the importance ofan
sexes. empathic therapist.
Blackout: A period oftime for which an alcoholic has no mem- Clinical psychologist: The type ofpsychologist who is trained to pro-
ory ofevents that transpired while he or she was intoxicated. vide psychotherapy and to administer and interpret psychological tests.
2
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Glossary
Cocktail party phenomenon: The effect ofnot being aware of Conditioned stimulus (CS): An originally neutral stimulus that
other people’s conversations until your name is mentioned and comes to produce a response evoked by a US after it has been
then suddenly hearing it. paired enough times with that US.
Code: A particular method for specifying information (such as Conduction deafness: A type ofdeafness caused by a physical
in words or images). impairment ofthe outer or middle ear.
Cognitive dissonance: The uncomfortable state that arises from Cones: Cone-shaped retinal receptor cells that respond most
a discrepancy between two attitudes,beliefs,or behaviors. strongly to one ofthree wavelengths oflight;the combined sig-
Cognitive distortions: Systematic biases in the way a person nals from cones that are most sensitive to different wavelengths
thinks about events and people,including oneself. play a key role in producing color vision.
Cognitive learning: The acquisition ofinformation that may not Confidence interval: The range above and below the mean ofa
be acted on immediately but is stored for later use. sample within which the mean ofa population is likely to occur.
Cognitive neuroscience: The approach in psychology that blends Confirmation bias: A bias to seek information that will confirm
cognitive psychology and neuroscience (the study ofthe brain) a rule and not to seek information that would refute the rule.
when attempting to specify how the brain gives rise to mental Conformity: A change in behavior in order to follow a group’s
processes that store and process information. norms.
Cognitive psychology: The approach in psychology that at- Confound (or confounding variable): Any aspect ofthe situation
tempts to characterize the mental events that allow information that varies along with the independent variable (or variables) of
to be stored and operated on internally. interest and could be the actual basis for what is measured.
Cognitive restructuring: The process ofhelping clients view Conservation: The Piagetian principle that certain properties,
their situation in a new light,which then allows them to shift such as amount or mass,remain the same even when the appear-
their thinking from the focus on automatic,distorted,negative ance ofthe material or object changes,provided that nothing is
thoughts to more realistic ones. added or removed.
Cognitive therapy: A type oftherapy that is designed to help Consolidation: The process ofconverting information stored
clients think realistically and rationally in order to reinterpret dynamically in LTM into a structural change in the brain.
events that otherwise would lead to distressing thoughts,feelings, Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement given for each de-
and/or behaviors. sired response.
Cognitive–behavior therapy (CBT): A type oftherapy that is de- Continuous variables: Variables that have values that can fall
signed to help patients both to reduce problematic behaviors and anywhere along the measurement scale.
irrational thoughts and to develop new,more adaptive behaviors Contrapreparedness: A built-in disinclination (or even an in-
and beliefs. ability) for certain stimuli to be conditioned to elicit particular
Collectivist culture: A culture that emphasizes the rights and conditioned responses.
responsibilities ofthe group over those ofthe individual. Control condition: A part ofa study in which participants re-
Color blindness: An acquired (by brain damage) or inherited ceive the same procedure as in the experimental condition except
inability to distinguish two or more hues from each other or to that the independent variable ofinterest is not manipulated.
sense hues at all. Control group: A group that is treated exactly the same way as
Color constancy: The perception that the color ofan object the experimental group,except that the independent variable that
remains the same even when it is seen in different lighting is the focus ofthe study is not manipulated.The control group
conditions. holds constant—“controls”—all ofthe variables in the experi-
Companionate love: An altruistic type oflove characterized by mental group.
expending time,attention,and resources on behalfofanother Controlled processing: Processing that requires paying attention
person. to each step ofa task and using working memory to coordinate
Complex inheritance: The transmission ofcharacteristics by the the steps;relies on explicit memories.
joint action ofcombinations ofgenes working together;also Convergence: The degree to which the eyes swivel toward the
called polygenetic inheritance. center (are crossed) when a person focuses attention on an object.
Compliance: A change in behavior brought about by a direct re- Coping: Taking action to address a stressor or to counteract ef-
quest rather than by social norms. fects ofa stressor.
Compulsion: A repetitive behavior or mental act that a person Coping strategy: A specific approach or technique that is em-
feels compelled to perform,usually in response to an obsession. ployed to handle stress.
Computer-assisted tomography (CT): A neuroimaging technique Cornea: The transparent covering over the eye,which (along
that produces a three-dimensional image ofbrain structures with the lens) focuses light onto the back ofthe eye.
using X rays. Corpus callosum: The large bundle ofaxons that connects the
Concept: The idea that underlies the meaning ofa word or image; two halves ofthe brain.
depending on the language,some concepts can be expressed with a Correlation coefficient: A number that ranges from -1.0 to 1.0
single word or may require a phrase or two to be fully expressed. that indicates how closely interrelated two sets ofmeasured
Concrete operation: In Piaget’s theory,a (reversible) manipula- variables are;the higher the coefficient (in either the positive or
tion ofthe mental representation ofan object that corresponds to negative direction),the better the value ofone measurement can
an actual physical manipulation. predict the value ofthe other.Also simply called a correlation.
Conditioned emotional response (CER): An emotionally charged Cortisol: A hormone produced by the outer layer ofthe adrenal
conditioned response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus. glands that helps the body cope with the extra energy demands of
Conditioned response (CR): A response that depends (is condi- stress.
tional) on pairing the conditioned stimulus with an uncondi- Counseling psychologist: The type ofpsychologist who is
tioned stimulus;once learned,the response to the US now occurs trained to help people with issues that naturally arise during the
when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. course oflife.
3
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Glossary
Crack: Cocaine in crystalline form,usually smoked in a pipe Discrimination (in perception): The ability to respond only to a
(freebasing) or rolled into a cigarette. particular stimulus and not to a similar one.
Creativity: The ability to produce something original ofhigh Discrimination (toward others): Negative behavior toward indi-
quality or to devise an effective new way to solve a problem. viduals from a specific group that arises from unjustified negative
Critical period: A narrow window oftime when a certain type attitudes about that group.
oflearning or some aspect ofdevelopment is possible. Disinhibition: The inhibition ofinhibitory neurons,which
Cross-sectional study: A study in which different groups of makes other neurons (the ones that are usually inhibited) more
people are tested,with each group composed ofindividuals ofa likely to fire and which usually occurs as a result ofdepressant use.
particular age. Display rule: A culture-specific rule that indicates when,to
Crystallized intelligence: According to Cattell and Horn,the whom,and how strongly certain emotions can be shown.
kind ofintelligence that relies on knowing facts and having the Dizygotic: From different eggs and sharing only as many genes
ability to use and combine them. as any pair ofsiblings—on average,half.
Cues: Stimuli,thoughts,or feelings that trigger or enhance Door-in-the-face technique: A compliance technique in which
remembering;reminders ofan object or event. someone makes a very large request and then when it is denied
(as expected) makes a smaller request—for what is actually
Dark adaptation: The process that leads to increased sensitivity desired.
to light after being in the dark. Double pain: The sensation that occurs when an injury first
Data: Careful descriptions or numerical measurements ofa causes a sharp pain and later a dull pain;the two kinds ofpain
phenomenon. arise from different neural pathways sending their messages at
Debriefing: An interview after a study to ensure that the partici- different speeds.
pant has no negative reactions as a result ofparticipation and to Double-blind design: The participant is “blind”to (unaware of)
explain why the study was conducted. the predictions ofthe study (and so cannot consciously or
Decay: The loss ofmemories over time because the relevant unconsciously produce the predicted results),and the experi-
connections among neurons are lost. menter is “blind”to the group to which the participant has
Deductive reasoning: Reasoning that applies the rules oflogic to been assigned or to the condition that the participant is receiving
a set ofassumptions (stated as premises) to discover whether cer- (and so experimenter expectancy effects cannot produce the
tain conclusions inevitably follow from those assumptions;de- predicted results).
duction goes from the general to the particular. Down syndrome: A type ofmental retardation that results from
Defense mechanism: The unconscious processes that prevent the creation ofan extra chromosome during conception;it is a
unacceptable thoughts or urges from reaching conscious genetic problem but not inherited.
awareness. Dream analysis: A technique used in psychoanalysis and psy-
Delayed reinforcement: Reinforcement given some period of chodynamic therapy in which the therapist examines the content
time after the desired response is exhibited. ofdreams to gain access to the unconscious.
Delusions: Unshakable but false beliefs that are often bizarre. Drive: An internal imbalance caused by the lack ofa needed
Dendrite: The treelike part ofa neuron that receives messages substance or condition that motivates animals (including humans)
from the axons ofother neurons. to reach a particular goal that will reduce the imbalance.
Dependent variable: The aspect ofthe situation that is measured
as the values ofan independent variable are changed. Eating disorders: A category ofdisorders that involves severe
Depressants: A class ofsubstances (including barbiturates,ben- disturbances in eating.
zodiazepines,and alcohol),that depress the central nervous sys- Effect: The difference in the value ofthe dependent variable
tem,thereby decreasing the user’s behavioral activity and level of that arises from changes in the independent variable.
awareness;also called sedative-hypnotic drugs. Ego: A personality structure,proposed by Freud,that develops
Deprived reward: Reward that occurs when an animal (includ- in childhood and tries to balance the competing demands ofthe
ing a human) lacks a substance or condition necessary for sur- id,superego,and reality.
vival and an action then produces this substance or Egocentrism: In Piaget’s theory,the inability to take another
condition. person’s point ofview.
Depth ofprocessing: The number and complexity ofthe mental Elaborative encoding: Encoding strategies that produce great
operations used when processing;deeper processing occurs when breadth ofprocessing.
more—or more complex—operations are used during Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): A treatment in which an elec-
encoding. tric current induces a controlled brain seizure.
Descriptive statistics: Concise ways ofsummarizing properties Electroencephalogram (EEG): A tracing ofbrain waves ofelec-
ofsets ofnumbers. trical fluctuation over time.
Diathesis–stress model: An explanation for how psychological Electroencephalograph: A machine that records electrical activ-
disorders develop,in which a predisposition to a given disorder ity in the brain.
(diathesis) and specific factors (stress) combine to trigger the Embryo: A developing baby from the point where the major
onset ofthe disorder. axis ofthe body is present until all major structures are present,
Dichotic listening: A procedure in which participants hear dif- spanning from about 2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception.
ferent stimuli presented separately to each ofthe two ears Emotion: A psychological state with four components:(1) a
(through headphones) and are instructed to listen only to sounds positive or negative subjective experience,(2) bodily arousal,
presented to one ear. (3) the activation ofspecific mental processes and stored infor-
Diffusion ofresponsibility: The diminished sense ofresponsibil- mation,and (4) characteristic overt behavior.
ity to help that each person feels as the number ofbystanders Emotional intelligence (EI): The ability to understand and regu-
grows. late emotions effectively.
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Glossary
Emotionality: A temperament dimension characterized by an Family therapy: A therapy modality in which a family (or cer-
inclination to become aroused in situations in which the predom- tain members ofa family) is treated.
inant emotions are distress,fear,or anger. Fetal alcohol syndrome: A condition that includes mental retar-
Emotion-focused coping: Coping focused on changing the per- dation and is caused by excessive drinking ofalcohol by the
son’s emotional response to the stressor. mother during pregnancy.
Enacted social support: The specific supportive behaviors pro- Fetus: A developing baby during the final phase ofdevelop-
vided by others. ment in the womb,from about 8 weeks after conception until
Encoding: The process oforganizing and transforming birth.
incoming information so that it can be entered into memory, Figure: A set ofperceptual characteristics (such as shape,color,
either to be stored or to be compared with previously stored texture) that typically corresponds to an object.
information. Fixed interval schedule: Reinforcement given for responses only
Encoding failure: A failure to process to-be-remembered infor- when they are produced after a fixed interval oftime.
mation well enough to ensure that it is fully entered into LTM. Fixed ratio schedule: Reinforcement given for responses pro-
Endogenous cannabinoids: Neurotransmitter substances re- duced after a fixed number ofprior responses.
leased by the receiving neuron that then influence the activity of Flashback: A hallucination that occurs without drug use,often
the sending neuron. long after the user has taken a drug.
Endorphins: Painkilling chemicals produced naturally in the brain. Flashbulb memory: An unusually vivid and detailed memory of
Episodic memories: Memories ofevents that are associated with a dramatic event.
a particular time,place,and circumstance. Fluid intelligence: According to Cattell and Horn,the kind of
Estrogen: The hormone that causes girls to develop breasts and intelligence that underlies the creation ofnovel solutions to
is involved in the menstrual cycle. problems.
Evocative (or reactive) interaction: Occurs when genetically in- Food aversion (taste aversion): A classically conditioned avoid-
fluenced characteristics (both behavioral and physical) induce ance ofa certain food or taste.
other people to behave in particular ways. Foot-in-the-door technique: A technique that achieves compli-
Evolution: Gene-based changes in the characteristics or abilities ance by beginning with an insignificant request,which is then fol-
ofmembers ofa species over successive generations. lowed by a larger request.
Evolutionary psychology: The approach in psychology that as- Forebrain: According to a historical way oforganizing brain
sumes that certain cognitive strategies and goals are so important structures,a unit ofthe brain that includes the cortex,thalamus,
that natural selection has built them into our brains. limbic system,and basal ganglia.
Exhaustion phase: The final stage ofthe GAS,in which the Forgetting curve: A graphic representation ofthe rate at which
continued stress response itselfbecomes damaging to the body. information is forgotten over time.
Expectancies: Expectations that have a powerful influence on Formal operation: In Piaget’s theory,a reversible mental act that
thoughts,feelings,and behaviors and,in turn,on personality. can be performed even with abstract concepts.
Experimental condition: A part ofa study in which participants Fovea: The small,central region ofthe retina with the highest
receive the complete procedure that defines the experiment. density ofcones and the highest resolution.
Experimental group: A group that receives the complete pro- Free association: A technique used in psychoanalysis and psy-
cedure that defines the experiment. chodynamic therapy in which the patient says whatever comes to
Experimenter expectancy effects: Effects that occur when an in- mind,and the train ofthought reveals to the therapist or psycho-
vestigator’s expectations lead him or her (consciously or uncon- analyst the patient’s issues and ways ofhandling them.
sciously) to treat participants in a way that encourages them to Frequency: The number oflight waves or sound waves that
produce the expected results. move past a given point per second.
Explicit memories: Memories that can be retrieved voluntarily Frequency distribution: The frequency ofeach value ofthe
and brought into STM.Also called declarative memories. independent variable (for continuous variables) or ofeach
Exposure: A therapeutic technique whereby through repeated type ofcase (for categorical variables) that was observed in a set
encounters with a stimulus the person becomes less responsive to ofdata.
that stimulus. Frequency theory: In hearing,the theory that higher frequencies
External attribution: An explanation ofsomeone’s behavior that produce higher rates ofneural firing.
focuses on the situation;also called situational attribution. Frontal lobes: The brain lobes located behind the forehead;crit-
Extinction (in classical conditioning): The process by which a ically involved in planning,memory search,motor control,speech
CR comes to be eliminated through repeated presentations ofthe control,reasoning,and emotions.
CS without the presence ofthe US. Functional fixedness: When solving a problem,getting stuck on
Extinction (in operant conditioning): The fading out ofa re- one interpretation ofan object or one aspect ofthe situation.
sponse following an initial burst ofthat behavior after reinforce- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): A type ofmag-
ment ceases. netic resonance imaging that detects the amount ofoxygen being
Extrasensory perception (ESP): The ability to perceive and know brought to particular places in the brain,which indicates how ac-
things without using the ordinary senses. tive those neurons are.
Functionalism: The school ofpsychology that sought to under-
Facial feedback hypothesis: The idea that emotions arise partly stand how the mind helps individuals to adapt to the world
as a result ofthe positioning offacial muscles. around them,to function effectively in it.
Factor analysis: A statistical method that uncovers the particular Fundamental attribution error: The strong tendency to inter-
characteristics (factors) that make scores more or less similar. pret other people’s behavior as arising from internal causes
False memories: Memories ofevents or situations that did not, rather than external ones;also referred to as the correspondence
in fact,occur. bias.
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