Table Of ContentINTERNATIONAL SANCTIONS IN CONTEMPORARY
PERSPECTIVE
Also by Margaret P. Doxey
ECONOMIC SANCTIONS AND INTERNATIONAL
ENFORCEMENT
THE COMMONWEALTH SECRETARIAT AND THE
CONTEMPORARY COMMONWEALTH
International Sanctions
in Contemporary
Perspective
Margaret P. Doxey
Emeritus Professor of Political Science
Trent University
Ontario
Canada
Second Edition
Published in Great Britain by
MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS
and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library.
First edition 1987
Second edition 1996
ISBN 978-0-333-63883-5 ISBN 978-1-349-25016-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-25016-5
Published in the United States of America by
ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC.,
Scholarly and Reference Division.
175 Fifth Avenue.
New York, N.Y. 10010
ISBN 978-0-312-16162-0
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Doxey, Margaret P.
/
International sanctions in contemporary perspective Margaret P.
Doxey, - 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-312-16162-0
1. Sanctions (International law) 2. Economic sanctions.
I. Title.
JX 1246.D69 1996
341.5'82-dc20 96-15978
CIP
© Margaret P. Doxey 1987, 1996
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of
this publication may be made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or
transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with
the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
or under the terms of any licence permittinglimited copying
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court
Road, London W1P 9HE.
Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this
publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil
claims for damages.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
05 04 03 02 01 00 99 98 97 96
Contents
List of Tables vi
Preface to the Second Edition vii
1 The Sanctions Problematique 16
2 Major Cases of Sanctions 1935-95 16
3 Contexts and Frameworks for Sanctions and the
Intentions of Senders 47
4 Costs and Burden-Sharing 66
5 Problems of Implementation 82
6 The Impact on Targets: Vulnerability and Response 95
7 Sanctions Revisited Ill
Notes and References 128
Select Bibliography of General Works 139
Index 141
v
List of Tables
l.l Typology of non-violent sanctions 14
3.1 Intentions of sender states 58
4.1 Costs for senders 68
vi
Preface to the Second Edition
The first edition of International Sanctions in Contemporary Perspec
tive was published in 1987 from a text prepared a year earlier and a
new and revised edition is obviously needed. Any study of inter-state
relations which claims topical relevance must take account of the
momentous changes in the international arena which have occurred
since 1989 and the enhanced role of the United Nations on a wide
spectrum of peace and security issues. This is particularly true of
multilateral sanctioning where recent experience has generated a wealth
of new material. The format of this new edition has been changed to
accommodate these developments while keeping the length of the book
within reasonable limits. Descriptive studies of fourteen cases of multi
lateral sanctions are now presented in summary form and used to in
form detailed analysis of the problems associated with sanctions
application and impact as well as the major policy considerations which
are relevant to official sanctioning decisions. The frequency with which
governments find themselves confronting such decisions underlines the
importance of the subject for practitioners and scholars alike.
My interest in international sanctions dates from the late 1960s when
I wrote a PhD thesis for the University of London entitled Economic
Sanctions and International Enforcement which was published for the
Royal Institute of International Affairs by Oxford University Press in
1972. A second edition was published by Macmillan in 1980. In my
'pioneering' days I recall warnings from experts that the subject was
best avoided because of the lack of adequate empirical data. Happily I
ignored this advice but such comments would be inconceivable today
when the popularity of sanctions as a technique of statecraft has gen
erated a mini-industry for scholars.
By the late 1980s I was teaching undergraduate and graduate courses
on 'Sanctions and International Relations' at Wellesley College, Mas
sachusetts, at the London School of Economics and at my own univer
sity. Students could draw on an excellent body of literature and enjoyed
both the interdisciplinary focus and the challenging policy issues which
were raised. I wrote International Sanctions in Contemporary Perspective
to take account of the high-profile cases of sanctioning outside the
United Nations framework which began in late 1979 with the response
to the Tehran hostages crisis and the Soviet intervention in Afghani-
vii
viii Preface
stan. It was also important to discuss the intense debate over sanctions
against South Africa where the persistence of the institutionalized sys
tem of racial discrimination known as apartheid offended the conscience
of the international community.
In preparing this new edition I have derived much benefit from ex
changes with colleagues and practitioners at conferences and work
shops organized by the Stanley Foundation, the Fourth Freedom Forum
and Kroc Institute at Notre Dame University, the Canadian Centre for
Global Security and Yale University's United Nations Studies Program,
and the Carnegie Commission for the Prevention of Deadly Conflict.
Librarians at Trent University, Chatham House, the Canadian Institute
of International Affairs, the University of Toronto's Robarts Library
and the United Nations were helpful, as always. Colleagues in the
Department of Political Studies at Trent, the Department of Interna
tional Relations at the London School of Economics, and elsewhere in
academe provided helpful insights and UN officials were most gener
ous with time and information. All opinions expressed in the book
are, of course, my own.
Trent University MARGARET DOXEY
Ontario
August 1995
1 The Sanctions Problematique
International sanctions seem to have been constantly in the news in
recent years. Comprehensive sanctions mandated by the United Nations
Security Council are currently in force against Iraq and Serbia/Monte
negro, Libya is subject to an arms embargo and a ban on air links,
while arms embargoes have been imposed on Angola, Liberia, Rwanda,
Somalia and all constituent republics of the former Yugoslavia! From
1993 to 1994 there were also UN sanctions on Haiti. This activity is
in striking contrast to the first 45 years of the United Nations' history
when the Security Council ordered sanctions on only two occasions:
Southern Rhodesia from 1966 was subjected to an increasingly stringent
set of economic sanctions, removed in 1979 prior to its attainment of
independence as Zimbabwe, and South Africa was under an arms em
bargo from 1977 until 1994 when the election of a democratic govern
ment led by Nelson Mandela ended that country's international isolation.
The veto power over Security Council decisions enjoyed by the five
permanent members - Britain, China, France, the Soviet Union and
the United States - set them and their allies and clients beyond the
reach of UN sanctions from the outset, and East-West hostility brought
paralysis to the Security Council throughout the Cold War years. In
1950 a temporary Soviet boycott of its proceedings enabled the Secur
ity Council to recommend that UN members should help South Korea
to repel the attack by North Korea by contributing military forces to a
unified command under the UN flag and US leadership. The Soviet
government had been angered by the refusal of the United States to
allow the People's Republic of China to take over the 'China' seat at
the UN, but it speedily returned to the Council chamber which meant
that 'additional measures' against both North Korea and mainland China
could only be recommended by the UN General Assembly. Even the
Tehran hostage crisis, which involved the violation by Iran of basic
international law regarding the protection of foreign diplomats, did not
break the Cold War pattern. In December 1979 the Security Council
designated the situation a threat to the peace under Article 39 of the
UN Charter, but the Soviet government vetoed any sanctions follow
up. In the 1982 Falklands crisis the Security Council confirmed that a
breach of the peace had occurred, but Britain did not press for economic
sanctions, preferring to avoid a Soviet veto.
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