International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Second Edition

25918 Pages·2015·459.89 MB·english

by  James D. Wright

I E
NTERNATIONAL NCYCLOPEDIA OF THE
SOCIAL & BEHAVIORAL
SCIENCES
SECOND EDITION
This page intentionally left blank
I E
NTERNATIONAL NCYCLOPEDIA OF THE
SOCIAL & BEHAVIORAL
SCIENCES
SECOND EDITION
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
JAMES D. WRIGHT
University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
VOLUME 1
Amsterdam(cid:129)Boston(cid:129)Heidelberg(cid:129)London(cid:129)NewYork(cid:129)Oxford
Paris(cid:129)SanDiego(cid:129)SanFrancisco(cid:129)Singapore(cid:129)Sydney(cid:129)Tokyo
Elsevier
Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands
TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UK
225WymanStreet,Waltham,MA02451,USA
Copyright(cid:1)2015ElsevierLtd.unlessotherwisestated.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,including
photocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhow
toseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchasthe
CopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be
noted herein).
Notice
Noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublisherforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,
negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructionsorideascontainedinthematerialherein,
Becauseofrapidadvancesinthemedicalsciences,inparticular,independentverificationofdiagnosesanddrugdosagesshouldbemade
BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData
AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
LibraryofCongressCatalogNumber:
AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress
ISBN(print):978-0-08-097086-8
ForinformationonallElsevierpublications
visitourwebsiteatstore.elsevier.com
15 16 17 18 19 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Publisher:LisaTickner
AcquisitionEditor:LisaTickner
ContentProjectManagers:ClaireByrne,MichaelNicholls,GemmaTomalin,MarkHarper
Designer:MariaInesCruz
PrintedandboundinUnitedStatesofAmerica
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief
James D. Wright
University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
Senior Editorial Associates
Amy M. Donley Donald C. Barrett
University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA California State University, San Marcos, CA, USA
Area Editors
John Berry Kenneth C. Land
Queen’s University, Kingston,Canada; and Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
Higher SchoolofEconomics(HSE),Moscow,Russia Institutions and Infrastructure ofthe Social and
ClinicalPsychology Behavioral Sciences
Applied, Industrial,and Organizational Statistics
Psychology Mathematics and Computer Sciences Applications
Development Psychology Logic ofinquiry,Data Bases,and Research Design
Social Psychology Criminology
Personality Psychology
Motivational Psychology Barbara Prainsack
Psychiatry
Kings College London, London, UK
Social Work
EvolutionarySciences
Genetics, Behavior, History,and Society
Stefan Ecks
Religious Studies
University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Scienceand Technology Studies
Ethicsof Research Law
Anthropology
Archaeology Peter Schmidt
Health
Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Giessen,
Germany; and Higher School of Economics (HSE)
Guillermina Jasso
Moscow, Russia
New York University, New York, Environmental andEcological Sciences
NY, USA Education
Demography PoliticalScience
Sociology Labor Studies
Studiesof the Life Course Media Studiesand Mass Communication
Sexuality War, Peace, Violence,and Conflict
v
vi Editorial Board
Richard Whatmore James Wright
University of Sussex, Sussex, UK; and University of University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
St. Andrews, Scotland, UK Area,Development,and International Studies
Biographies Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual,andTrans-sexualStudies
History Historyof the Social and Behavioral Sciences
Philosophy Applied Social and Behavioral Sciences
ContemporaryCulturalConcerns
Henry Wai-Chung Yeung
Harry Whitaker NationalUniversity of Singapore, Singapore
Northern Michigan University,Marquette,MI, USA Economics
Memory:Cognitive andNeuroscientificAspects Geography
Linguistics A Management, Organizations,Business, Marketing,
Linguistics B and Finance
Neuroscience of Language Urban Studies andPlanning
Behavioral Neuroscience Public Policy
Cognitive Neuroscience
Cognitive Psychology
Section Editors
Helmut Anheier Dominic Boyer
Hertie Schoolof Governance,Berlin, Germany Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
Institutions and Infrastructure ofthe Social and Anthropology
Behavioral Sciences
Peter Bryant
Neal M. Ashkanasy IE Business School,Madrid, Spain
The University of Queensland, Brisbane,QLD,Australia Management Organizations,Business, Marketing,
Applied, Industrial,and OrganizationalPsychology and Finance
Graciela Cabana
Sarah B. Barber
University of Tennesee, Knoxville, TN, USA
University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
Genetics, Behavior, Historyand Society
Archaeology
Ingrid Callies
Donald C. Barrett
Leem,Paris,France
California State University, SanMarcos, CA, USA
Ethicsof Research
Biographies
Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual,andTrans-sexualStudies
Stefano Cappa
Vita-SaluteSan Raffaele University,Milano,Italy
Dinesh Bhugra
Cognitive Neuroscience
Kings College London, London, UK
Psychiatry
Xenia Chryssochoou
Tora Biksony PanteionUniversity of SocialandPolitical
RAND, Santa Monica, CA,USA Sciences,Athens, Greece
Ethicsof Research Social Psychology
Phillip Bonacich Harold Clarke
UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,LosAngeles,CA,USA University of Texas, Dallas,
Mathematics and Computer Sciences TX, USA
Applications PoliticalScience
y
Deceased.
Editorial Board vii
Henri Cohen Xin Guo
Instituteof Cognitive Science, University of Quebec, The HongKong PolytechnicUniversity, HungHom,
Montreal, QC, Canada Hong Kong,China
Cognitive Psychology Statistics
Daina Crafa Rachel Hammersley
McGillUniversity, Montreal,QC,Canada Newcastle University,Newcastle, UK
Developmental Psychology History
Ulf Hannerz
Lena Dominelli
StockholmUniversity, Stockholm, Sweden
DurhamUniversity, Durham, UK
Anthropology
Social Work
Susan Hanson
Tosha Dupras
Clark University, Worcester, MA, USA
University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
Geography
Archaeology
Jeffrey K. Hass
Jacquelynne Eccles
Faculty of Economics, St.Petersburg State University,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,MI, USA
St. Petersburg,Russia; andUniversity of Richmond,
Motivational Psychology
Richmond, VA,USA
Area,Development,and International Studies
Irma T. Elo
University of Pennsylvania,Philadelphia, PA,USA Anke Hassel
Demography Hertie Schoolof Governance,Berlin, Germany
Public Policy
Dafna Feinholz
Andreas Hess
Social andHumanSciences Sector, UNESCO, Paris,
France University College,Dublin,Ireland
Ethicsof Research Biographies
Gonia Jarema
Marina Fischer-Kowalski
Institut Universitatire deGériatrie deMontréal,
Alpen-Adria University, Vienna,Austria
Montréal, QC, Canada
Environmental andEcological Sciences
Linguistics B
Christian Fleck
Heidi Keller
University of Graz, Graz, Austria
University of Osnabrueck, Osnabrueck, Germany
Historyof the Social and Behavioral Sciences
Developmental Psychology
Andrew D. Foster Bryan Kolb
BrownUniversity, Providence,RI,USA University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge,AB, Canada
Demography Behavioral Neuroscience
Qiang Fu Kay Levine
Duke University, Durham, NC, USA Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
Statistics Law
Rosann Greenspan Michael Lynch
University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Law Scienceand Technology Studies
viii Editorial Board
Sinisa Malesevic Thomas Nechyba
University College,Dublin,Ireland Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
War, Peace, Violence,and Conflict Economics
Chrysostomos Mantzavinos
Karen Parker
University of Athens, Athens, Greece
University of Delaware,Newark, DE, USA
Philosophy
Criminology
Jean-Christophe Marcel
Henrike Rau
Université Paris IV, Paris, France
NationalUniversity of Ireland,Galway, Ireland
Biographies
Environmental andEcological Sciences
Douglas S. Massey
PrincetonUniversity, Princeton,NJ, USA Kees van Rees
Sociology ErasmusUniversity, Rotterdam,TheNetherlands
Cultureand the Arts
John A. Mathews
MacquarieUniversity, Sydney, NSW,Australia; and Richard D. Roberts
LUISS Guido Carli University,Rome,Italy Professional Examination Service, New York, NY, USA
Management Organizations,Business, Marketing, Personality Psychology
and Finance
Debra J. Rog
Catherine McBride
Westat, Rockville, MD, USA
ChineseUniversity of Hong Kong,HongKong,China
Applied Social and Behavioral Sciences
Education
Sergio Della Sala
Gustavo Mesch
University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
University of Haifa,Haifa, Israel
Memory:Cognitive andNeuroscientificAspects
Media Studiesand Mass Communication
Alex Mesoudi Katariina Salmela-Aro
DurhamUniversity, Durham, UK University of Helsinki andJyvädkylä, Helsinki, Finland
EvolutionarySciences Motivational Psychology
Barbara Miller Yoshimichi Sato
George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA Tohoku University,Sendai, Japan
ContemporaryCulturalConcerns Sociology
Melinda Mills Darren Sherkat
University of Oxford,Oxford,UK SouthernIllinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA
Studiesof the Life Course Religious Studies
Wolfgang H.R. Miltner James D. Sidaway
Friedrich SchillerUniversity,Jena,Germany NationalUniversity of Singapore, Singapore
ClinicalPsychology Geography
Stephen L. Morgan Johannes Siegrist
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD USA University of Duesseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany
Logic ofInquiry,andResearch Design Health
Daniel Muijs Marianne Stewart
University of Southampton, Southampton, UK University of Texas, Dallas, TX, USA
Education PoliticalScience
Editorial Board ix
Claus Vögele Fulong Wu
University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg University College London,
Health London,UK
Urban Studies andPlanning
Linda Waite
Henry Yeung
University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
Sexuality NationalUniversity of Singapore, Singapore
Economics
William Shi Yuan Wang
Karl Zimmerer
ChineseUniversityofHongKong,HongKong,China;and
University of California atBerkeley, USA Pennsylvania State University,Pittsburgh,
Linguistics A PA, USA
Environmental andEcological
Richard Whatmore Sciences
University of Sussex, Sussex, UK; andUniversity of St.
Klaus F. Zimmermann
Andrews,St.Andrews,Scotland, UK
InstitutefortheStudyofLabor(IZA)andBonnUniversity,
Bonn, Germany
Harry Whitaker
Labor Studies
Northern Michigan University,Marquette,MI, USA
Neuroscience of Language