Interactions across Englishes: Linguistic Choices in Local and International Contact Situations

266 Pages·2012·4.35 MB·English

by  Christiane Meierkord

Interactions across Englishes
English is a language at the centre of research into language contact,
because its global spread has resulted in contact with an enormous var-
iety of different languages worldwide, leading to the creation of many new
varieties of English, including second-language varieties, and also pidgins
and creoles. This book takes an original look at what happens when speak-
ers of these different varieties interact with one another. Using her own
rich fieldwork data from diverse international and South African contexts,
Meierkord proposes an innovative approach to how Englishes merge and
blend in such interactions, creating further new forms of English, and fur-
ther changes to the language. Through skilful analyses and descriptions,
the book provides fascinating insights into where and who the users of
English as a lingua franca are and what English then looks like at the levels
of phonetics, morphosyntax, the lexicon and discourse.
christiane meierkord is Chair Professor of English Linguistics in
the English Department at Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany.
studies in english language
General editor
Merja Kytö (Uppsala University)
Editorial Board
Bas Aarts (University College London)
John Algeo (University of Georgia)
Susan Fitzmaurice (University of Sheffield)
Christian Mair (University of Freiburg)
Charles F. Meyer (University of Massachusetts)
The aim of this series is to provide a framework for original studies of English,
both present-day and past. All books are based securely on empirical research,
and represent theoretical and descriptive contributions to our knowledge of
national and international varieties of English, both written and spoken. The
series covers a broad range of topics and approaches, including syntax, phon-
ology, grammar, vocabulary, discourse, pragmatics and sociolinguistics, and is
aimed at an international readership.
Already published in this series:
Irma Taavitsainen and Päivi Pahta (eds.): Medical and Scientific Writing in Late
Medieval English
Elizabeth Gordon, Lyle Campbell, Jennifer Hay, Margaret Maclagan, Andrea
Sudbury and Peter Trudgil l: New Zealand English: Its Origins and
Evolution
Raymond Hickey (ed.): Legacies of Colonial English
Merja Kytö, Mats Rydén and Erik Smitterberg (eds.): Nineteenth Century
English: Stability and Change
John Algeo: British or American English? A Handbook of Word and Grammar
Patterns
Christian Mair: Twentieth-Century English: History, Variation and
Standardization
Evelien Keizer: The English Noun Phrase: The Nature of Linguistic
Categorization
Raymond Hickey: Irish English: History and Present-Day Forms
Günter Rohdenburg and Julia Schlüter (eds.): One Language, Two Grammars?:
Differences between British and American English
Laurel J. Brinton: The Comment Clause in English
Lieselotte Anderwald: The Morphology of English Dialects: Verb Formation in
Non-standard English
Geoffrey Leech, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair and Nicholas Smith:
Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study
Jonathan Culpeper and Merja Kytö: Early Modern English Dialogues: Spoken
Interaction as Writing
Daniel Schreier, Peter Trudgill, Edgar Schneider and Jeffrey Williams: The
Lesser-Known Varieties of English: An Introduction
Hilde Hasselgård: Adjunct Adverbials in English
Raymond Hickey: Eighteenth-Century English: Ideology and Change
Charles Boberg: The English Language in Canada: Status, History and
Comparative Analysis
Thomas Hoffmann: Preposition Placement in English: A Usage-based Approach
Claudia Claridge: Hyperbole in English: A Corpus-based Study of Exaggeration
Päivi Pahta and Andreas H. Jucker (eds.): Communicating Early English
Manuscripts
Irma Taavitsainen and Päivi Pahta (eds.): Medical Writing in Early Modern
English
Colette Moore: Quoting Speech in Early English
David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully and Emma Moore
(eds.): Analysing Older English: Evidence, Methods and Solutions
Jim Feist: Premodifiers in English: Their Structure and Significance
Steven Jones, M. Lynne Murphy, Carita Paradis and Caroline Willners:
Antonyms in English: Construals, Constructions and Canonicity
Earlier titles not listed are also available

Interactions across

Englishes
Linguistic Choices in Local and International
Contact Situations
christiane meierkord
Ruhr-Universität, Bochum, Germany
cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,
Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 8ru, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521192286
© Christiane Meierkord 2012
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2012
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Meierkord, Christiane, 1964–
Interactions across Englishes : linguistic choices in local and international contact situations /
Christiane Meierkord.
p. cm. – (Studies in English language)
Includes bibliographical references and index.

isbn 978-0-521-19228-6 (hardback)
1. English language–Discourse analysis. 2. English language–Variation.
3. English language–Foreign countries. 4. English language–Spoken English.
5. Intercultural communication. I. Title.
pe1422.m48 2012
420.1′41–dc23
2011052105
isbn 978-0-521-19228-6 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or
accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in
this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is,
or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Contents

List of figures page x
List of tables xi
Preface and acknowledgements xiii
Key to transcription symbols xv
List of abbreviations xvi
1 Introduction 1
2 From English as a lingua franca to Interactions
across Englishes 12
2.1 English as a lingua franca: myths and realities 13
2.2 Challenging the myths about English as a lingua franca 19
2.3 Facts from historical lingua francas 26
2.3.1 Evidence from languages other than English 26
2.3.2 Evidence of IaEs in the history of English 32
2.4 Present-day rea lities 41
2.4.1 Current lingua francas 41
2.4.2 Variation in present-day English 44
3 Interactions across Englishes and contact phenomena 48
3.1 Ecologies of language contact, dialect contact,
and IaEs 48
3.2 Processes and products of language contact, dialect
contact, and IaEs 52
3.2.1 Code alternation and nonce borrowing 52
3.2.2 Mixing and levelling of varieties 57
4 The Interactions-across-Englishes model 61
4.1 Individuals’ contributions to IaEs 63
4.2 Selections from the ‘feature pool’ 64
4.2.1 Cognitive constraints on individual selections 64
4.2.2 Social constraints: prestige, the forces
of the linguistic market, and identity
construction 65
4.3 Emerging new varieties? 67
vii
viii Contents
5 Intranational Interactions across Englishes in the
Outer Circle 69
5.1 Africa 73
5.1.1 Multilingual ecologies in present-day Africa 74
5.1.2 Regio-ethnic Englishes in Nigeria 75
5.1.3 Cameroon: where English and French meet local
vernaculars 77
5.1.4 From Sheng to Engsh in Kenya 79
5.2 Asia 82
5.2.1 Englishes and IaEs in multilingual ecologies in
present-day Asia 82
5.2.2 Regional Englishes in India 84
5.2.3 English across ethnicities in Singapore
and Malaysia 87
5.3 The Pacific 91
5.3.1 Fiji – local islanders and immigrant
communities in contact 91
6 Local choices in South Africa 95
6.1 Englishes and IaEs in South Africa’s
multilingual ecologies 95
6.1.1 A brief history of multilingualism,
English, and IaEs in South Africa 96
6.1.2 Englishes and IaEs in South Africa’s
multilingual ecologies today 99
6.2 Studying IaEs in South Africa 105

6.2.1 Cape Town as an urban meeting place for South
Africa’s Englishes 106
6.2.2 Individual uses of English in IaEs 110
6.2.3 Selections at the level of phonology 116
6.2.4 Grammatical choices in the IaEs: progressive
and past tense 123
6.2.5 Lexical choices in South Africa’s IaEs
and ‘strategies’ for lexical gaps 128
7 International Interactions across Englishes – trends and
developments 132
7.1 Current tendencies in the spread of English in
Expanding Circle regions 133
7.2 Functional contexts of international IaEs 138
7.2.1 IaEs in international organisations and
associations … 138
7.2.2 … in secondary and tertiary education … 141
7.2.3 … in international business … 144
7.2.4 … and at the grass roots 147