Table Of ContentPergamon Titles of Related Interest
Carman Obstacles to Mineral Development: A Pragmatic View
Diwan/Livingston Alternative Development Strategies and
Appropriate Technology: Science Policy for an Equitable World
Order
Francisco/Laird/Laird The Political Economy of Collectivized
Agriculture: A Comparative Study of Communist and Non-
Communist Systems
Golany Arid Zone Settlement Planning: The Israeli Experience
Goodman/Love Management of Development Projects: An
International Case Study Approach
Laszlo/Baker/Eisenberg/Raman The Objectives of the New
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Meagher An International Redistribution of Wealth and Power
Morris Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: The
Physical Quality of Life Index
The Rothko Chapel Toward A New Strategy for Development
Stepanek Bangladesh—Equitable Growth?
h PERGAMON
POLICY
STUDIES
Integration of
Science and
Technology with
Development/Caribbean
and Latin American Problems
in the Context of the
United Nations Conference on
Science and Technology
for Development
Edited by
D. Babatunde Thomas
Miguel S. Wionczek
Published in cooperation with
Florida International University,
The Institute of Social and Economic Research,
University of the West Indies and the
Institute of Development Studies,
University of Guyana
Pergamon Press
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Copyright © 1979 Pergamon Press Inc.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Integration of science and technology with development.
(Pergamon policy studies)
Proceedings of a symposium held in Miami, Apr. 6-8,
1978, sponsored by Florida International University, the
Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of
the West Indies, and the Institute of Development
Studies, University of Guyana.
Includes index.
1. Underdeveloped areas—Technology—Congresses.
2. Technology —Latin America—Congresses. 3. Tech-
nology transfer—Congresses. I. Thomas, D. Babatunde.
II. Wionczek, Miguel S. III. Florida International
University. IV. Mona, Jamaica. University of the
West Indies. Institute of Social and Economic Research.
V. University of Guyana. Institute of Development
Studies.
T49.5.I55 1979 338.9V8 78-26984
ISBN 0-08-023881-5
All Rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means:
electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without permission in writing from the
publishers
Printed in the United States of America
Introduction
A future historian will note with all probability that the second half
of the twentieth century was characterized by two seemingly contradic-
tory trends: the accelerated scientific and technological progress in the
industrialized part of the world economy, and the generalized socio-
economic stagnation in the rest of the globe.
The persistent coexistence of these two phenomena gave rise in the
1960s to a worldwide debate on the subject of mobilizing science and
technology for the solution of the problem of underdevelopment. While,
as one of the papers included in this volume points out, the debate
translated itself into the staggering output of books, studies, and policy-
oriented proposals - at national and international levels - not only did
little actual application of science and technology for development
occur, but all sorts of gaps between the rich and the poor countries
continued to increase. This disappointing situation resulted in ques-
tioning the very relevance of modern science and technology for the
poor societies, and in the emergence of an idea now widely known as
"appropriate technology."
In the midst of these growing intellectual conflicts another idea
started gaining ground in the world scientific community in the early
1970s. This idea is that the divorce between science and technology on
the one hand, and development problems on the other, warranted an
international conference that would hopefully bring to an end this
unsatisfactory state of affairs. The political support offered for this
idea by the governments of both the poor and the rich countries resulted
in the forthcoming United Nations Conference on Science and Technol-
ogy for Development (UNCSTD) scheduled for August 1979 in Vienna,
Austria.
Those who had a chance to follow the initial preparations for
UNCSTD in 1976-77, and were able to analyze the results of the first
meeting of its Preparatory Committee, held in New York in February
1977, discovered that these preparations were highly politicized and
devoid of substance, and were transformed immediately into a dialogue
IX
X INTRODUCTION
between scientists from the developed countries and the coalition of
diplomats and bureaucrats from the less developed countries (LDCs).
Since the records of the UNCSTD preparatory meetings strongly
suggest that neither group has been particularly conversant with science
and technology problems in the context of underdevelopment, there is a
high probability that UNCSTD itself may result in another harmful and
unnecessary confrontation between the rich and the poor countries.
Consequently, in many parts of the world voices were heard that such
political confrontation should be avoided, if only because, for a long
time, the LDCs will need large amounts of the scientific knowledge and
technical know-how already accumulated in the developed countries.
This position, supported by practically all scientific and technological
communities around the globe, seems to be shared also by many people
concerned with science and technology policy issues, in both the rich
and the poor countries.
As the preparations for UNCSTD continued to advance in 1977, it
became clear that a frustrating international confrontation in Vienna
might be avoided if, among other things, the science and technology
(S&T) needs of the LDCs were defined, and some mutually acceptable
rules for international S&T cooperation established. The definition of
the LDCs' needs was necessary because of the magnitude and scope of
scientific and technological advancements achieved in the past few
decades, but concentrated in the rich countries. An agreement on basic
principles of international S&T cooperation was highly advisable
because the traditional forms of cooperation have not worked. Many
nongovernmental organizations concerned with scientific and technolog-
ical matters decide to join the debate on these key issues for the
purpose of enhancing the probability of UNCSTD's success.
In the fall of 1977, a group of people working on the problems of
science and technology policy in the Caribbean and Latin America came
to the conclusion that it might be useful - in addition to intergovern-
mental UNCSTD preparatory meetings on national, subregional, and
regional levels - to organize a small academic symposium that would
address itself to the whole agenda of the United Nations Conference.
Preliminary meetings on the planning of the symposium were held in
Mexico City, Miami, and Mona, Jamaica. Considering that such an event
fell within the sphere of its own academic concern, Florida Internation-
al University, a member of the State University System of Florida,
offered to sponsor the symposium jointly with the Institute of Social and
Economic Research, University of the West Indies, and the Institute of
Development Studies, University of Guyana. The full proceedings of the
Symposium, held at the FIU campus in Miami in early April 1978, and
enlarged by a few additional contributions, appears in this volume.
The Symposium was, in fact, one of the first international academic
meetings in which a group of people had an opportunity to discuss
science and technology problems in the developing countries of the
Western hemisphere as individuals, and not as government officials or
international civil servants. The participation of representatives of
various United States agencies and academic research centers involved
directly or indirectly in UNCSTD, or interested in its outcome,
INTRODUCTION xi
broadened the scope of the debate. Hence, the value of the Symposium
for the United States, whose scientific and technological policies have
considerable impact upon Latin America and the Caribbean, was
perhaps increased.
The agenda focused on four basic propositions that have recently
gained acceptance among students of the problems of science and
technology for development and among policymakers in the same field:
1. the building up of a minimum local capability to produce
scientific knowledge and technological know-how is the precondi-
tion for the successful application of science and technology to
the solution of difficult and intricate problems of underdevelop-
ment;
2. the task of establishing a local science and technology capability
in the developing countries must start with strengthening S&T
infrastructure, and improving or redesigning the mechanisms of
technology transfer from the advanced countries;
3. there is a need to know more about concrete technological
experiences and difficulties of individual LDCs and, in particular,
of small LDCs, and
4. the time was ripe to take stock of the achievements and failures
of numerous science and technology policy agencies established
in Latin America and the Caribbean in the 1960s and the early
1970s.
Finally, it was thought that the symposium offered an opportunity to
look with frankness, objectivity, and expertise into the prospects of
UNCSTD.
The five parts of the volume deal respectively with the issues arising
from these basic propositions: problems involving building up S&T
capability, infrastructure and technology transfer, technological prob-
lems in the Caribbean, science and technology policies in Latin
America, and the UNCSTD preparations. The book ends with a
presentation of a brief debate on the topics of future research on
science and technology in Latin America and the Caribbean, and with a
report of the Symposium.
Throughout the volume, one finds a single unifying element. All the
contributors and participants seem to agree, either explicitly or
implicitly, that the mobilization of scientific and technological poten-
tial for development is not an administrative but a political exercise
that should involve not only scientists and technologists but politicians,
educators, S&T users, and the public at large. The lack of concern of
most of these groups in the LDCs with scientific and technological
advancement of their countries, together with the work of the vested
interests in the advanced countries, is largely responsible for the lack of
progress in this area.
The convening of the Symposium would not have been possible
xii INTRODUCTION
without the financial support of Florida International University
(through the cooperation of the International Affairs Center, the
Caribbean/Latin American Studies Council, the College of Arts and
Science, and the School of Technology); the University of the West
Indies, and the University of Guyana. Dr. K. William Leffland, Dean of
the International Affairs Center at Florida International University and
Dr. Vaughan A. Lewis, Director, Institute of Social and Economic
Research, University of the West Indies, deserve special thanks for their
professional and personal support in convening the Symposium. Thanks
are due also to Mr. Nicholas H. Morley for his financial support of work
related to the publication of this volume, in addition to his major
contributions to Florida International University as a member of the
University Foundation Board of Trustees. Ms. Jane Marchi's insightful
editorial assistance, Ms. Regina Greenstein's and Ms. Linda Goff's
warm and cheerful assistance in typing the manuscript are greatly
appreciated.
All the papers in this volume reflect the personal and professional
views of their respective authors and do not necessarily reflect the
policies or views of the organizations with which these individuals are
affiliated.
1
Building Scientific and
Technological Capabilities in
LDCs—A Survey of
Some Economic
Development Issues
D. Babatunde Thomas
One issue on which there is now general agreement is that scientific
developments and technological advances were major forces in post-
World War II economic growth throughout present-day industrially
advanced countries (ACs). But the impact of these forces on the
economic progress of individual, less developed countries (LDCs) has
been either nil or very minimal, in spite of the political, economic, and,
to a lesser extent, cultural "linkages" between most of these countries
and a number of ACs.
The evidence suggests, additionally, that early exploitation of some
nations by other nations, engendered by an ample supply of raw
materials in the colonies of imperial powers, provided part of the basis
for existing differences in national economic performances.(1) While the
abridgement of the superficial linkages and dependence of LDCs on the
advanced countries is vital to the attainment of self-determination and
improved national economic performance by the former, the prevailing
structure of the international system of trade and finance suggests that
these linkages must necessarily be supplanted by mutually beneficial
ones.
In the last two decades, the absolute and relative differences in the
performances of the advanced countries vis-à-vis the LDCs have
assumed major global importance for a number of reasons. The most
critical of these is that the gap between the two groups of countries in
terms of human welfare has been widening at an alarming rate. The
continuing poverty and deprivation in the LDCs, and the relatively rapid
economic progress in the advanced countries are manifestations of an
ever widening gap. Although, during the same period, the rates of
3
4 INTEGRATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
economic progress in the advanced countries in general have been
attenuated and subjected to periodic interruptions, the superficiality of
the "linkages" and the dependence on these countries by the LDCs have
tended to increase the adverse impact of such economic disturbances on
the economies of the latter group of countries with greater severity
than in the ACs.
The objectives here are to examine the fundamental question which
arises from the foregoing background, survey some of the issues which
must be understood in order to understand the underlying explanations
for the slow rates of economic progress in LDCs, and discuss some ideas
on what can be done to improve this state of affairs. The key question
is:
What are the circumstances and the limiting factors responsible
for the inability of LDCs to benefit effectively from scientific
developments and technological advances, and why?
This question has been investigated repeatedly in studies on the
development problems of LDCs, more so in the last two decades than at
any other period in modern history, especially by social scientists and
historians, and more recently by physical scientists and engineers. The
preponderance of available evidence suggests that science and technolo-
gy have contributed to incidences of growth in income and wealth in
these countries, but have not contributed to development in terms of
vital structural changes in their economies. A major, though simple,
explanation for this situation is that LDCs lack the requisite scientific
and technological (S&T) capabilities.
THE BASIS OF S&T CAPABILITY
The expectations of significant economic progress through science
and technology, on the part of both international organizations and LDC
policy makers and planners during these past two decades, have been
based on a lack of proper understanding of the requirements for the
successful application of modern science and technology to the
problems of underdevelopment, and on distorted views of the impedi-
ments to the attainment of the longed-for progress. This lack of proper
understanding originated from the tendency of policy makers and
planners to treat science and technology as coterminous, or to focus
primarily on the application of technology while sometimes inadvertent-
ly neglecting the development of science. This was largely due to
ignorance of the proper link between science and technology as tools for
development. Science may be defined as systematic knowledge of the
physical and material world; and technology may be broadly defined as
the vast sets of knowledge, experience, methods, and means of solving
social and economic problems. A different problem exists in instances
where the need for the orientation of pure and applied sciences to the
building of S&T capability is recognized, for example, in parts of Latin
America and Southeast Asia. There is a tendency in these situations not
BUILDING SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL CAPABILITIES 5
to recognize the building of indigenous scientific and technological
capability as a long-term proposition. Thus, in both instances, the
development of pure and applied scientific activities are not oriented to
building the basis of S&T capability. Depending on the needs and the
resource constraints facing individual countries or regions, this capabili-
ty is composed of a predetermined quantity and quality of scientific and
technological manpower to conduct pure and applied research and
development activities necessary for national development, physical
facilities (including laboratories and equipment), and other support
facilities and services (such as educational institutions, libraries,
consulting and engineering services, and technological information
services). In sum, the basis of S&T capability is infrastructure.
In reference to the foregoing situations, the following questions may
be posed and their relevance to the problems just outlined investigated.
1. To what extent, and in what manner, is science linked to
technology? or, specifically, is science the progenitor of
technology?
2. Is there any evidence to support the proposition that scientific
knowledge is not a precondition for the development and/or the
acquisition and successful use of technological knowledge?
3. Are science and technology panaceas for social and economic
development problems?
Although the approaches to these questions are not central to the
primary focus of this chapter, certain aspects, which relate to possible
responses by the international community to the scientific and
technological needs of LDCs for development, are examined briefly.
It is often argued that LDCs do not need to duplicate the
development of existing scientific knowledge as it is readily available
through journals, books, symposia, conferences, and similar sources.
Moreover, LDCs should not use their scarce resources to develop
indigenous technology when the technology necessary for their develop-
ment could be obtained through international transfer. It is further
argued that the use of existing S&T knowledge is a short-term
proposition and, through this approach, LDCs could avoid the inherent
problems of trial and error involved in the development of new
technologies, and thus minimize a significant part of the cost of
developing their own scientific and technological resources.
There is no conclusive empirical evidence in support of these
arguments. Although basically recommendations that are theoretically
plausible, these arguments are ostensibly impractical. Neither the
scientific nor the technological requirements of LDCs can be left
entirely to foreign sources. Experiences of LDCs with public sector
technical assistance programs, and their past dependence on internation-
al transfer of technology, suggest that this approach is neither feasible
nor mutually beneficial to suppliers of the implied resources and the
recipient LDCs. Furthermore, the international scientific, engineering,
