Integrated Approaches to Preventing Antisocial Behavior Patterns

17 Pages·2010·3.2 MB·English

Integrated Approaches to Preventing Antisocial
Behavior Patterns Among School-Age
Children and Youth
HILL M. WALKER, ROBERT H. HORNER, GEORGE SUGAI, MICHAEL BULLIS,
JEFFREY R, SPRAGUE, DIANE BRICKER, AND MARTIN J- KAUFMAN
L
EVELS OF BOTH LETHAL AND NON- This article provides a reconceptualization of the role of schools in preventing antisocial behavior
lethal forms of youth violence problems among children and youth. The U.S. Public Health Service's conceptual model of prevention,
continue to accelerate in our involving primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention approaches, is used as an organizing framework
society despite recent declines in other to illustrate how schools can deliver interventions more effectively and improve outcomes. Traditional
forms of criminal behavior (Federal school approaches to coping with students who are at risk and antisocial are reviewed, and the
Bureau of Investigation, 1996)- Four following major topics are addressed: (a) A case is made that schools can play a central, coordinating
years ago, the former surgeon general, role in collaboration with families and social service agencies in addressing the challenging problems
C. Everett Koop, and his associates in presented by antisocial students; (b) a generic intervention approach is suggested that involves
the medical field declared interpersonal reducing risk factors for antisocial behavior and enhancing protective factors; (c) a three-level
violence to be the Number 1 public approach to organizing specific interventions for achieving prevention goals and outcomes is described;
health problem in this country (Koop and (d) recommended interventions or approaches are suggested for each prevention level (i.e.,
& Lundberg, 1992). Gunshot wounds primary, secondary, tertiary). The article concludes with a discussion of some factors associated with
have now replaced automobile accidents a revised mission for schools in this domain and how these factors may impair or enhance the
as the leading cause of paralysis among necessary changes required to achieve this goal.
young people (Centers for Disease Con-
trol, 1994). Evidence suggests that the
that the number of juveniles in our so- 4. Pervasive exposure to violent acts
United States has evolved into the most
ciety will double by the year 2010 and in the media.
violent developed country in the world
that the number of juvenile arrests will
(Council on Crime in America, 1996;
Exposure to these risk factors seems
double in the next decade (June 13,
Zimring & Hawkins, 1995).
to be increasing for large sectors of at-
1996, CNN).
Our society seems to be caught up in
risk children and youth and their peers
In its seminal 1993 report on youth
an epidemic of violence—a majority of who are not at risk, and the effects are
violence, the American Psychological
which is accounted for by youth under further exacerbated by various forms of
Association (1993) identified four fac-
the age of 19 who use handguns and abuse and neglect that produce young
tors that act as accelerators for violence
other weapons to settle disputes (Fagan, people who are highly agitated and/or
and criminal behavior among youth:
1996). Most of these individuals are in states of rage.
young men, although young women 1. Early involvement with drugs and Although our society is engaged in
seem to be narrowing the gender gap in alcohol; what can be called an "incarceration
the areas of juvenile crime and gang 2. Easy access to weapons, particularly frenzy," national experts in public
activity (Hawkins, 1996). Recent de- handguns; health, gangs, delinquency, and youth
mographic projections are far from en- 3. Association with antisocial groups; violence who are attempting to control
couraging. For example, it is expected and this escalating phenomenon consistently
JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS, OCTOBER 1996, VOL. 4, NO. 4, PAGES 194-209
argue that we cannot stem the tide of • More than 6,000 teachers are threatened respond. To date, they have been rela-
youth violence through incarceration annually, and well over 200 are physi- tively detached players in developing
applied after the fact (Fagan, 1996; cally injured by students on school proactive responses to the fundamental
Stamper, 1996). Stamper noted that the grounds. social changes that have occurred in
country's unprecedented rate of build- • Increasingly, students are intimidated our society and that are increasingly
ing prisons and treating youth as adult and threatened by mean-spirited teasing, reflected in students' school behavior
offenders provide grim testimony to our bullying, and sexual harassment occur- (Kulongoski, 1996). Yet, our schools
society's failure to cope with the mas- ring at school. have a powerful and very crucial role to
sive problems that are now consuming • Finally, schools are major sites for play in: (a) targeting at-risk children
our children and youth. recruitment and related activities by and youth early in their academic ca-
To be effective in this domain, our organized gangs (Committee for Chil- reers, and (b) intervening comprehen-
society must also address the front end dren, 1996; National School Safety sively with such students and key social
of this massive social problem. It is es- Center, 1996; Office of Juvenile Justice agents (i.e., parents, teachers, and peers)
sential that we engage in a national and Delinquency Prevention, 1995; in order to divert them from a path
dialog that recognizes and eschews vio- Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995). that frequently leads to school failure
lence in all its forms, as well as the and dropout; rejection by teachers, peers,
attitudes and more subtle, related forms Violence and antisocial, destructive and, ultimately, caregivers; investment
of behavior that can lead to it (e.g., forms of behavior increasingly charac- in delinquency and violent behavior;
aggression; mean-spirited teasing and terize students who populate our public gang membership; and prison (Patterson
bullying; sexual harassment; endorse- school systems. Well-developed antiso- et al., 1992; Reid, 1993; Walker &
ment of antisocial beliefs such as "fight cial behavior patterns and high levels Bullis, 1991,1996; Walker & Sylwester,
back, ask questions later"). We must of aggression evidenced early in a child's 1991).
(a) change the norms and expectations life are among the best predictors of In this article we make the case that
around aggressive attitudes and behav- delinquent and violent behavior years schools have a key role to play in ad-
ior and how we relate to each other later (Fagan, 1996; Hawkins & Cata- dressing the rising tide of at-risk stu-
interpersonally, and (b) directly address lano, 1992; Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, dents who bring antisocial, aggressive
the risk factors and precursors associ- 1992). These behavior patterns become behavior patterns with them to the
ated with future violent and delinquent elaborated and more destructive over schooling experience due to the mul-
behavior by targeting and intervening time; they poison the school environ- tiple, nonschool risk factors to which
with at-risk children and youth early in ment and lower the quality of life for they have been exposed early in their
their lives—well before they become students and staff alike. The National lives (i.e., poverty, abuse and neglect,
invested in these unfortunate acts and School Safety Center reported that family conflict, weak or incompetent
behavior patterns. school safety has emerged as an issue of parenting, drug and alcohol involve-
Schools often reflect societal trends, great national concern, and neither stu- ment of primary caregivers, dysfunc-
and we now see the spillover of inter- dents nor staff feel completely safe in tional family situations that are chaotic
personal violence and conflict into the our school settings (Stephens, 1995). and highly unpredictable; see APA,
daily lives of students and staff in school National organizations representing the 1993; Nelson, Rutherford, & Wolford,
settings that were once relatively safe. interests of schools (e.g., National As- 1996; Patterson et al., 1992; Teens &
The following statistics and observa- sociation of State Boards of Education, Violence, 1996; Walker, Colvin, &
tions document how school safety and Association of Chief State School Of- Ramsey, 1995).
the quality of life in school settings have ficers, National Education Association, We further argue that schools have
declined precipitously in the recent past. American Federation of Teachers) have the relatively unique ability to access
For example: adopted school safety and violence-free the vast majority of at-risk children early
schools as major features of their advo- in their school careers and also to
• Over 100,000 students bring weapons cacy efforts at federal and state levels. marshall the resources and expertise
to school each day, and 40 are The 26th annual Phi Delta Kappan necessary to address their problems in a
killed or wounded with these weap- Gallup poll of the public's attitudes to- coordinated fashion. In so doing, they
ons. ward the public schools mirrors educa- can help reduce, eliminate, and/or buffer
• Large numbers of students fear vic- tors' concerns about the safety of schools many of the risk factors that, if left
timization on the way to and from and the rates of student violence, ag- unattended, propel young people along
school. gression, and conflict occurring therein a path leading to a host of unfortunate
• In our nation's schools, 22% of students (Elam, Rose, & Gallup, 1994). outcomes, including violence and crimi-
are afraid to use school bathrooms By their very nature, schools are re- nal behavior. Schools, however, can
because these relatively unsupervised active organizations because of their only play this role effectively if they
areas are often sites for assaults and structure and the myriad and often con- are supported in doing so by our society
other forms of victimization. flicting pressures to which they must and are partners with families and com-
JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS, OCTOBER 1996, VOL. 4, NO. 4
munity agencies in consortia that imple- cators have tended to respond to these intervention, (b) matches the intensity
ment community-wide initiatives to problems reactively and after the fact and nature of interventions with the
address this problem. with punishing alternatives. The in- severity and intractability of students'
Schools can appropriately serve as a creasing rates of school suspensions and adjustment problems, and (c) empha-
lead agency within an interagency ap- expulsions have the dual effect of mak- sizes the fostering of prosocial and safe
proach to addressing the problems of ing schools relatively safer, and society learning environments for all students.
such children and youth—and, in many unsafer, as these suspended/excluded The remainder of this article is di-
cases, their families (Dryfoos, 1990). youth are turned loose on communities vided into four sections. The first section
Realizing such a different mission will where their investment in offending describes the characteristic responses of
require dramatic changes in the ways behavior accelerates markedly (Bostic, school systems to these problems and
that school personnel have characteris- 1994). As a social policy, this practice illustrates how many educational prac-
tically dealt with this student popula- is akin to the displacement of water in tices used with this student population
tion, their attitudes toward them, and its ultimate effects. are insufficient and poorly matched to
the necessary identification and reallo- The solutions that have been devel- the problems they are designed to re-
cation of resources. For example, we oped by and offered to schools in this dress. Section 2 describes the multiple
recommend the following changes and area are often incomplete and not suf- risk factors, across different contexts,
practices in this regard: ficiently comprehensive to adequately that are producing unprecedented num-
address the problem. School responses, bers of children and youth who are likely
1. All students should be screened much like the marketing strategies of to become school failures and adoles-
proactively at the point of school the Silicon Valley as detailed by cent offenders. This section makes the
entry to identify those who show the Geoffrey Moore (1995) in his recent case for school investment in a risk/
early signs of antisocial, aggressive book, Inside the Tornado, are not com- protective factors approach that the
behavior patterns that put them at plete and do not provide full solutions juvenile corrections field and the U.S.
risk; that actually have a chance to work. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin-
2. Coordinated primary, secondary, and The investments made are often mini- quency Prevention have recommended.
tertiary prevention efforts are mal and well below the threshold nec- Section 3 presents a conceptual model
mounted as appropriate to divert as essary to achieve critical effects. In a that integrates different primary, sec-
many children as possible from this recent review of the epidemiology of ondary, and tertiary prevention ap-
path and to keep them out of the violence, Gladwell (1996) referred to proaches for (a) preventing violence,
juvenile justice system; the "tipping point" in epidemics, (b) making schools safe, and (c) teach-
3. The practice of relying upon exclu- wherein the epidemic reaches a critical ing students social competence and ef-
sion, suspension, and expulsion as a point beyond which it escalates out of fective forms of coping behavior. Section
primary means of coping with this control. There are also tipping points 4 briefly reviews some model interven-
problem should be discontinued; and in the investments required to have an tion approaches and procedures that are
4. School systems should develop and, impact on problems such as violence, appropriate for each of these preven-
in many cases, reestablish a con- school dropout, or bullying. However, tion levels. The article concludes with
tinuum of alternative school place- because schools are often forced to op- a discussion of future directions and the
ments for this population, many of erate off a reactive and minimalist re- need for societal reinvestment and sup-
which have been eliminated in the sponse posture to emerging problems, port of schools in their attempts to ad-
wake of school reform and full in- the investments they make fall short dress a problem that increasingly poses
clusion (MacMillan, Gresham, & and are frequently inadequate to have risks for our society and way of life.
Forness, 1996). a substantive impact or solve the prob-
lem.
TRADITIONAL SCHOOL
Keeping these students engaged with The purpose of this article is to de-
APPROACHES
schooling for as long as possible is one scribe a conceptualization of fully inte-
of the best things we can do for them. grated, comprehensive approaches to Students who enter the schoolhouse
By so doing we can further develop their preventing antisocial behavior in the door frequently bring life-course-
skills, influence them in positive direc- context of schooling. These are ap- persistent patterns of antisocial behav-
tions, and prevent their becoming in- proaches that provide full or complete ior with them (Moffitt, 1994); that is,
volved with disruptive peer groups solutions that may have a better chance they are socialized to a particular be-
during school hours. of working than traditional approaches. havior pattern by family and home con-
To date, the effective role of schools In this article, a school-based approach ditions that establish it as a permanent,
in developing solutions to the problems to the prevention of antisocial, aggres- enduring feature of their lifestyle. Many
of antisocial behavior, interpersonal sive behavior patterns is described that: of these destructive behavior patterns
conflict, and violence has been largely (a) targets the entire school site as well are taught to students inadvertently by
unrealized. Like the larger society, edu- as individual students for assessment and caregivers within the context of highly
196 JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS, OCTOBER 1996, VOL. 4, NO. 4
stressed home conditions (e.g., poverty, changes in student behavior or by a 1. Students who are at risk for devel-
divorce, abuse, neglect, unemployment, natural tendency to quickly eliminate oping antisocial patterns of behavior
and substance abuse). Unfortunately, the immediate presenting problem and their correlated negative outcomes,
children who behave in this fashion rather than focus on the source. particularly minority students, are more
alienate their peers, teachers, and, ulti- In other cases, indirect intervention likely to be punished, excluded, and
mately, their primary caregivers. More approaches (e.g., counseling, insight- controlled than to have their problems
important, these students have not had based therapies, social skills training, addressed in a therapeutic manner.
opportunities to learn appropriate ways improving self-esteem) are used to solve 2. Schools typically have maintained
of behaving with peers and adults, nor intractable student behavior problems a reactive, punishment-oriented posture
have they been encouraged to substi- that require more powerful, direct forms in relation to at-risk students that fails
tute adaptive responses for maladaptive of intervention (Eysenck, 1994; Mayer, to recognize the need to: (a) identify
ones. Such students need to be directly 1995; Shamise, 1981). Referral of the students early on who show the signs of
taught an adaptive, positive pattern of problem student for counseling consis- these problems, and (b) mount com-
behavior for home, school, and other tently ranks as the most popular inter- prehensive, sustained interventions that
settings, be given opportunities to dis- vention option among teachers primarily can divert children from this path early
play what they have learned, and re- because responsibility for change is in their school careers.
ceive feedback regarding the effec- placed upon the student and a solution 3. The intractability and severity of
tiveness of their efforts. In addition, to the problem is pursued in a context student adjustment problems are rarely
these students need to be taught how external to the classroom. Such indi- appropriately matched to available inter-
to correctly discriminate the forms of rect approaches are rarely adequate or ventions that can remediate or amelio-
behavior to use and not use in a variety sufficient because the student tends to rate them. Too often, simple interven-
of social and educational contexts. In be unmotivated to engage in these thera- tions are applied in this regard in an
many situations, the problem is not pies and because "ownership" of the attempt to solve complex student prob-
"knowing how to do it," but "doing it problem is often shared by the student lems and vice versa.
when it is required." Often incentives and other social agents (e.g., peers, 4. School interventions for at-risk
are needed to motivate antisocial stu- adults; see Dryfoos, 1990). minority students are rarely contex-
dents to change their long-established Unfortunately, when such indirect tualized in relation to the nuances of
behavior patterns. intervention approaches fail, punish- their cultural backgrounds; in addition,
ments and exclusion from the school teacher interactions with minority at-
setting often become the interventions risk students tend to be based upon low-
Simple and General Solutions
of choice to eliminate the problem. performance expectations, critical rather
School personnel have a long history Exclusion, suspension, expulsion, verbal than constructive, short in duration, and
of applying simple and general solutions reprimands, and detention are common punishment oriented.
to complex student behavior problems reactive responses. Although punish- 5. To achieve maximum efficacy,
and of expressing understandable dis- ment consequences provide an imme- school interventions need to incorpo-
appointment when these attempts do diate, short-term reprieve from the rate universal, schoolwide features that
not work as expected. Usually the ap- problem, positive long-term change in address the needs of all students as well
proach used, or other factors (e.g., the behavior is not achieved. In fact, re- as specific features that address the indi-
child's home life, poor motivation for searchers have shown that punishment- vidual needs of those students who do
change, lack of parent support), are based interventions for students with not respond to the universal, schoolwide
blamed for unsatisfactory outcomes. In serious antisocial and violent behavior intervention.
most cases, the failure to achieve mean- usually result in an increase in the prob- 6. Intervention responses to students
ingful outcomes is due to a poor match lem behavior (Mayer & Sulzer-Azaroff, with severe problem behaviors tend to
between presenting problems and the 1990). be developed and implemented by indi-
selected intervention, a less than ad- In order to produce consistent, so- vidual teachers rather than by a team
equate implementation of the interven- cially acceptable behavior changes, we of committed staff members.
tion, lack of the necessary resources, or must intervene directly and comprehen- 7. Efforts to improve interventions
a failure to treat the problem(s) com- sively within and across all school set- for students with severe problem be-
prehensively throughout the implemen- tings in which problem behaviors are haviors must be organized into a com-
tation process. Rarely do school per- observed. Such an approach must be prehensive and strategic building- or
sonnel invest the resources, time, and fully integrated and must incorporate district-level plan that ranks as one of
expertise necessary to effectively solve primary, secondary, and tertiary preven- the top three school-improvement goals
such problems. Frequently these inter- tion goals and correlated interventions. for at least 2 years.
vention practices are sustained by un- This approach also is based upon the Prevention strategies and interven-
realistic expectations about what is following assumptions and observations tions appropriate for students who are
actually required to produce enduring about school interventions: at risk of academic and social failure
JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS, OCTOBER 1996, VOL. 4, NO. 4
should address and systematically take Solutions must start with a compre- lenges and needs of students who dis-
into account these findings and obser- hensive look at the contexts in which play the most antisocial and destruc-
vations. In addition, these strategies violence and antisocial behavior occur tive forms of behavior. In order to
must be comprehensive and proactive (Biglan, 1995). The school, for example, accomplish this goal, however, it is
in nature and implemented as early represents a complex organization of essential to have strong administrative
as possible in these students' school people, environments, policies, routines, support and leadership; staff investment
careers—preferably at the beginning of and procedures that should function as in the approach and willingness to
the schooling experience. a coordinated whole. A school can be implement it with integrity; and the
viewed as a network of four interactive necessary resources, including time com-
systems that collectively enable students mitments, behavioral expertise, and
What Is the Answer?
to learn and teachers to teach (Sugai & team-based working structures.
There are no simple or easy solutions Horner, 1994). The schoolwide system is
to eliminating and reducing antisocial designed to accommodate the vast ma-
RISK AND PROTECTIVE
behavior problems among children and jority of students by setting rules and
FACTORS IN ANTISOCIAL
youth. Schools can take actions that expectations, teaching desired academic
BEHAVIOR PATTERNS
will merely address the problem or they and social behaviors, and organizing and
can invest in strategies that actually standardizing the activities of all build- In its public information campaigns re-
have a chance of ameliorating it in an ing staff members. This dimension of garding such problems as coronary heart
acceptable and meaningful fashion. Pre- schooling is geared toward accommo- disease, the U.S. Public Health Service
ferred and promising practices exist; dation of all students and establishes has been highly successful in advocat-
however, they are implemented infre- the culture or ecology of a school build- ing and demonstrating an approach to
quently in school settings primarily be- ing. risk and protective factors. This ap-
cause they are often considered too In contrast, the specific setting system proach emphasizes the identification and
intrusive and/or labor intensive and of a school building provides policies reduction of known risk factors (e.g.,
because the time and effort involved in and procedures for the common areas smoking, obesity) as well as the devel-
their implementation is perceived as too of a school—cafeteria, hallways, bus opment of protective factors, such as
costly (Witt & Marsten, 1983; Witt & area, bathrooms, playgrounds, and so exercise and stress management regi-
Robbins, 1985). Thus, schools are in- forth. These areas are unique in that all mens, that operate to buffer and offset
creasingly unable to accommodate effec- students, regardless of their homeroom the effects of the risk factors. For maxi-
tively those at-risk students who bring or grade level, must pass through them mum impact, it is necessary to reduce
challenging attitudes and behavioral daily. Although generally there are rules, and eliminate known risk factors and
characteristics to the process of school- behavioral expectations, and explicit to simultaneously develop protective
ing. codes of conduct for these areas, they factors that can contribute to resiliency
In many cases, the choice boils down tend to be less structured than class- and plasticity (i.e., adaptability).
to intervention effectiveness versus room settings and occasion frequent The Office of Juvenile Justice and
teacher acceptance of approaches that peer-to-peer and student-to-adult inter- Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) has
provide effective solutions. In other actions. adopted this model as a recommended
words, approaches that are proven and Classroom systems are developed by approach for addressing the problems
effective are often not acceptable to teachers to support the larger schoolwide of youth offenders (see OJJDP, 1995).
many teachers and vice versa. As the policies and procedures and to manage A list of risk and correlated protective
pressures these students produce con- the academic performance and social factors across the domains of commu-
tinue to escalate in their intensity and behavior of students within instructional nity, family, school, and individual/peer
the pain levels increase for staff and environments and arrangements. Gen- group is given in Figure 1. The litera-
students alike, teachers and other school eral schoolwide rules (e.g., be respect- ture in juvenile corrections suggests that
personnel may tend to become more ful) are adapted to the requirements of the more risk factors an individual is
pragmatic in this regard. Schools must individual teachers (e.g., wait your turn exposed to over time, the greater the
learn to judge the effectiveness and when another person is talking). likelihood that negative outcomes such
acceptance of available interventions Finally, the individual student system as school failure and delinquency will
within the context of the meaning of provides established policies and pro- occur. In the context of interventions,
immediate and long-term behavior cedures for responding to students who addressing risk and protective factors
change, reasonable criteria for judging present the most severe forms of prob- simultaneously will produce better posi-
change, a systematic and objective lem behavior. Collectively, these four tive outcomes than addressing either
analysis of the costs and benefits of their systems provide a comprehensive matrix one alone (Hawkins, 1996; Hawkins &
efforts, and the chronicity and resis- in which behavioral supports, services, Catalano, 1992; OJJDP, 1995). The
tance to change of severe problem be- and interventions can be established effectiveness of the recommendations
havior among antisocial children. that accommodate the behavioral chal- in the first section of this article regard-
1QQ JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS, OCTOBER 1996 VOL. 4, NO. 4
ing school interventions is predicated
on the assumption that: (a) they are
applied to risk and protective factors
that have an impact, either directly or
indirectly, on the individual's adjust-
ment and performance, and (b) they
are also applied within the context of
reducing and/or eliminating risk factors
and also developing and/or enhancing
protective factors.
In our view, this approach is most
likely to be successful in developing
resilience among antisocial children and
youth who increasingly bring severe risk
profiles with them to the schooling pro-
cess (Garmezy, 1991, 1993; Luthar,
1991; Luthar & Zigler, 1991; Rutter,
1990). Resilience literally refers to the
ability to recover and "to spring back"
(Garmezy, 1991); with the great major-
ity of antisocial children and youth, the
primary task of school personnel and
other adults is to assist them in achiev-
ing this outcome because they will
already have been exposed to multiple
risk factors before entering school.
A number of the risk and protective
factors listed in Figure 1 are within the
ability of educators to address effectively.
Dropping out or being excluded from
schooling puts a youth's life at serious
risk for a host of crime-related outcomes.
For example, 90% of daytime burglar-
ies in Los Angeles County are commit-
ted by truant, suspended, and excluded
youth (Bostic, 1994); this figure aver-
ages 80% nationally (Crowe, 1995).
Rejection by teachers and peers has been FIGURE 1. Risk and protective factors related to antisocial behavior and youth offending.
identified by Patterson and his associ-
ates (Patterson et al., 1992; Reid, 1993)
as one of the key stages that at-risk, student's school success at considerable and/or disruptive peer groups that wreak
antisocial students follow on their path risk. The adaptive competencies listed havoc and often get involved with the
to school failure and delinquency. These in Figure 2 under teacher and peer- law (Patterson et al., 1992; Reid, 1993).
students are usually rejected because of related adjustment can be considered The work of Dodge and his colleagues
the extremely aversive nature of their protective factors that offset effects of has provided important insights into the
behavioral characteristics, of which the the listed maladaptive behaviors, which developmental trajectories and peer-
most dominant are coercion, aggression, function as risk factors. relations problems of antisocial children
and the humiliation of others. Nearly all students who display at- and youth (Dodge, 1985; Dodge, Coie,
The adaptive and maladaptive be- risk and antisocial forms of behavior & Brakke, 1982).
havioral competencies associated with are deficient in many of the critically Unfortunately, antisocial students are
the two primary social-behavioral adjust- important behavioral competencies as- often above the minimally acceptable
ments that all students must negotiate sociated with schooling. Students who limits of their teachers in terms of these
in the school setting (Walker, Colvin, do not display these competencies at maladaptive forms of behavior and well
& Ramsey, 1995) are given in Figure 2. acceptable levels are ultimately rejected below the teachers' expectations in re-
Failure to satisfactorily negotiate these by teachers and peers. Further, they lation to the adaptive competencies.
critically important adjustments puts the often band together and form deviant Thus, in this context an approach in-
JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS, OCTOBER 1996, VOL. 4, NO. 4
FIGURE 2. Model of interpersonal social-behavioral competence within school settings.
volving risk and protective factors would Unfortunately, most school ap- 1996; MacMillan et al., 1996; OJJDP,
reduce or eliminate the student's likeli- proaches for coping with such students 1995).
hood of engaging in the unacceptable focus on punishment, exclusion, con-
maladaptive behaviors (risk factors) and tainment, and rejection. As noted ear-
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR
develop/increase the student's frequency lier, by pushing these students out of
SCHOOL-BASED PREVENTION
of displaying the adaptive competen- the school system and thereby disen-
cies (protective factors). Implementing gaging them from schooling, we are In any school, one can identify three
this approach would vastly improve the merely turning them loose on commu- types of students: (a) typical students
academic chances and school adjust- nities and displacing the problem to not at risk for problems, (b) students
ment of many—perhaps most—antiso- another sector of our society. In our with an elevated risk status for devel-
cial students. It should be noted that view, effective alternative programs and oping antisocial behavior problems, and
some school systems are responding options need to be developed for this (c) students who show signs of life-
proactively to these student-generated student population that: (a) keep them course-persistent antisocial behavior
pressures by creating learning and op- engaged with the process of schooling patterns and involvement in delinquent
portunity centers, establishing schools for as long as possible; (b) directly teach acts (Larson, 1994; Moffitt, 1994;
within a school, and investing in pro- coping strategies and develop functional Walker, 1994). Life-course-persistent
grams designed to keep at-risk students skills in social, academic, and behav- antisocial behavior refers to at-risk stu-
in school. In our view, these practices ioral domains; and (c) provide a respite dents who are socialized to antisocial
need to become the norm within school for both the at-risk student and the regu- behavior and delinquency within the
systems. lar school placement setting (Garrison, family context by exposure to such risk
yr\r\ JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS, OCTOBER 1996, VOL. 4, NO. 4
factors as incompetent and inconsistent ties. In addition, primary prevention mildly at-risk students from a path lead-
parenting practices; poverty; unhealthy strategies focus on teaching all students ing to negative developmental out-
beliefs and attitudes; physical, emo- and staff the rules and expectations and comes. In our view, these approaches
tional, and sexual forms of abuse; drug other disciplinary policies and proce- are greatly underutilized in the major-
and alcohol involvement; and so forth dures that are designed to enhance the ity of today's schools, where their im-
(Hawkins, 1996). As a rule, these chil- smooth operation of a school environ- pact could be maximized.
dren and youth require the most power- ment. Teaching skills for school suc-
ful services, supports, and interventions cess (e.g., being prepared, getting to class
Secondary Prevention Strategies
available in order to have any impact on time, asking for help, completing
on their problems, sometimes even at and turning in homework), designing Secondary prevention involves inter-
just minimal levels. and presenting an effective and inter- ventions that provide behavioral or
These three student types are ordered esting academic curriculum, and maxi- academic support, mentoring, skill de-
along a severity-of-risk continuum that, mizing opportunities for student aca- velopment, and assistance to more se-
at one extreme, predicts a host of nega- demic and social success also represent verely at-risk students. Students who
tive developmental outcomes, includ- important primary prevention ap- do not respond to universal interven-
ing delinquency and adult criminality. proaches. These universal intervention tions become candidates for intensive,
Members of each student group arrayed approaches have perhaps the greatest individually tailored interventions that
along this continuum are candidates for potential for use by schools in estab- are more expensive. Interventions for
differing levels or types of intervention lishing a positive school climate and achieving secondary prevention goals
that represent correspondingly greater effective school procedures that divert are often referred to as "selected." In
specificity, complexity, comprehensive-
ness, expense, and intensity (Reid,
1993). The relationship between these
Target Student Type Intervention Approach
intervention levels/types and degree of
student risk status is clarified in Fig-
ure 3. This figure reflects application to Regular Primary Prevention (Universal Interventions):
school-based problems of the public (Typical or Not At-Risk) • School wide discipline plans
health field's conceptual approach to • Instruction in conflict resolution/
prevention and intervention (Larson, anger management strategies
4
• Effective teaching and schooling procedures
1994). In this conceptualization, pre-
vention and intervention are not viewed 1
as distinct or mutually exclusive dimen-
sions; instead, different types of inter-
ventions and approaches are used to
At-Risk for Secondary Prevention (Individualized, 1-1 Interventions):
achieve specific prevention goals. The Antisocial Behavior
• Identification of at-risk clusters of children, youth and families;
interventions appropriate for primary, Patterns
• Direct instruction in moral reasoning;
secondary, and tertiary forms of pre- • Anger-management and self-control;
vention, as illustrated in Figure 3, are • Family support and parent management training;
briefly described below. • Consultant based 1 to 1 interventions
+
Primary Prevention Strategies
Primary prevention strategies focus upon
enhancing protective factors on a Chronic Tertiary Prevention (Wraparound, Comprehensive Interventions):
schoolwide basis so that students do not (Life Course ^ ,,.,:. , . ,
become at-risk. Interventions used to Persistent) * Connection of children, youth and caregivers to community-based
achieve primary prevention goals are social service agencies;
• Development of individually-tailored, wraparound interventions;
universal—all students are exposed in
• Significant family involvement in planning and treatment activities;
the same way at the same level. An ex-
• Coordination with social service agencies, law enforcement,
ample of this kind of strategy is teach- courts, and corrections;
ing conflict resolution, emotional liter- • Drug-alcohol counseling;
acy, and anger-management procedures • Alternative placements such as day-treatment centers, specialized
schools, residential environments;
on a schoolwide (i.e., universal) basis.
Primary prevention is much like put-
ting fluoride in a community's water FIGURE 3. Correspondence between target student type and universal-selected interven-
supply in order to prevent dental cavi- tion approaches.
JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS, OCTOBER 1996, VOL. 4, NO. 4 201
other words, such students select them' individualized, comprehensive interven- an alternative structured classroom or
selves out for more intensive interven- tion that directly involves a cadre of community-based program, or some
tions by demonstrating their nonrespon- concerned individuals who are commit- other more intensive intervention.
siveness to the universal or schoolwide ted to a long-term system of care However, it should be noted that the
interventions and their corresponding (Cumblad, Epstein, Keeney, Marty, & failure of a student, or a group of stu-
need for more powerful, individualized Soderlund, 1996; Epstein et al., 1993; dents, to respond to a poorly imple-
intervention supports and services. VanDerBerg & Grealish, 1996). Inter- mented intervention provides little
Secondary prevention is much like ventions at this level must involve, at a assessment information regarding the
increasing one's scheduled visits to the minimum, the three social agents who need for additional/alternative place-
dentist because of an increased suscep- have the greatest impact on the lives of ments or interventions.
tibility (e.g., soft or thin enamel) for children and youth (i.e., parents, teach- In a fully integrated approach of this
dental cavities or initiating an ortho- ers, and peers). type, it is expected that the adjustment
dontic intervention because of teeth problems of approximately 75% to 85%
crowding. Examples of such strategies of a school's students can be solved with
Fully Integrated Approaches
might include small-group social skills well-implemented, primary prevention
School-site intervention approaches
lessons; behavioral contracting; spe- strategies of a universal nature (Reid,
that encompass all three of these pre-
cialized tutoring; and the provision of 1993). A majority of the remaining stu-
vention levels or types are needed
such services as remedial reading pro- dents should respond to individually
(Dryfoos, 1990; Knitzer, Steinberg, &
grams, at-risk counseling, and Big administered secondary prevention in-
Fleisch, 1990). Unfortunately, few
Brother/Sister. terventions of a more intensive nature.
schools implement all forms of preven-
The very small number of remaining
tion in their buildings, and, if they do,
students who do not respond to this
Tertiary Prevention Strategies their efforts are rarely coordinated or next level of intervention (secondary
Tertiary prevention is appropriate for interfaced with others involved in a prevention) would be candidates for a
severely involved, intractable students student's schooling. To be maximally tertiary prevention strategy.
who display a life-course-persistent pat- effective, prevention approaches and the
The implementation costs associated
tern of antisocial behavior that usually interventions comprising them must be
with these three levels increase as one
involves delinquent activities and some- directly linked to and coordinated with
moves along the continuum. Many uni-
times violence and social destructive- each other within the context of a versal interventions can be implemented
ness (Moffitt, 1994). In our dental anal- school site and its four systems of be- on a schoolwide basis for relatively small
ogy, individuals at this level would be havior support (i.e., schoolwide, spe- investments (e.g., $10 to $15 per stu-
candidates for significant cavity repairs, cific setting, classroom, and individual dent annually), whereas tertiary inter-
root canals, bridges, and other expen- student). Failure at one level of pre- ventions often cost $25,000 or more
sive forms of dental care. Successful vention provides an implicit assessment per application. The ultimate goal of
intervention for this student population that the student requires exposure to this overall approach is to retain as many
must be (a) comprehensive, (b) initi- more powerful, intensive interventions students as possible at the primary and
ated early, and (c) in evidence over the at the next level of prevention (i.e., secondary intervention levels and to
long term, and must involve parents, those students who do not respond to reduce the number who require tertiary
teachers, and peers. As a rule, wrap- the primary-level intervention compo- interventions. The economic and social
around, interagency approaches to inter- nents are then referred to the more in- implications of this outcome are of criti-
vention that are collaborative in nature tensive one-to-one strategies contained cal importance to the health and viabil-
are required to help students who fit in the secondary prevention level). ity of schools. Unless schools invest
this profile (Kukic, 1995). Similarly, those students who do not more aggressively in early intervention
Interventions are comprehensive in respond at this level would move to the approaches at the point of school entry
that a team of individuals is involved, third level and be exposed, along with and beyond, it is unlikely that the above
including parents, community agency their families, teachers, and peers, to a goal will be accomplished. In the next
personnel (e.g., juvenile corrections, comprehensive, collaborative, and in- section, the key features of interven-
mental health, child and family welfare tensive wraparound intervention. tions appropriate for these prevention
services), educators (general and spe- As a result, the failure of an at-risk approaches are illustrated and selected
cial), administrators, and support staff student to respond to a well-designed, examples given (Zigler, Taussig, &
(e.g., school psychologists, counselors). well-implemented intervention at any Black, 1992).
More specifically* interventions are of these three levels offers an assess-
based on comprehensive assessments of ment indicating that more powerful,
MODEL INTERVENTIONS
the problem and the organization of intensive, and/or comprehensive ap-
strategies that incorporate information proaches are needed. For example, fail- Descriptions of interventions appropri-
obtained from these assessments. The ure at the secondary prevention level ate for each of the three levels of pre-
result is a specially designed, highly would probably indicate the need for vention are provided in this section.
202 JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS, OCTOBER 1996 VOL. 4, NO. 4
These interventions represent preferred and teaching at a local school-building of curricular intervention programs for
practices and have demonstrated effi- level. The ASCD package contains preventing violence, enhancing school
cacy when implemented with accept- implementation and training manuals safety, and developing a positive school
able levels of treatment integrity. as well as videotapes that demonstrate climate. Two exemplary curricular pro-
effective schooling/teaching practices in grams of this type are briefly described
operation. This staff development pack- next.
Universal Interventions for
age is derived from solid research and Among the most widely accepted
Primary Prevention Applications
builds an implementation process for curricular programs recently available
As noted above, universal, schoolwide applying this knowledge in a practical, for violence prevention in schools is
interventions are used at the primary feasible manner at the building and the Second Step program as developed
prevention level. Examples of these classroom levels (see Note 1). and published by the Committee for
kinds of interventions are (a) develop- Similarly, Walker, Colvin, and Children, a nonprofit agency based in
ment of a schoolwide discipline pro- Ramsey (1995) provided detailed guide- Seattle. Second Step is a kindergarten
gram, (b) presentation of a schoolwide lines and examples that show how to through Grade 8 violence prevention
social skills training program, or (c) the set up and monitor effective schoolwide curriculum that teaches four essential
schoolwide teaching of anger manage- discipline programs. Sprick, Sprick, and skills to all students: empathy, impulse
ment and conflict-resolution strategies. Garrison (1992) also presented exten- control, problem solving, and anger
Universal interventions can be di- sive information and guidelines on how management/conflict resolution. The
vided into two types: (a) mandatory or to set up policies governing schoolwide Second Step curriculum is designed to
required, and (b) optional or based upon discipline procedures. Colvin, Kame- be taught at each grade level and is
need. With regard to required or man- enui, and Sugai (1993) and Colvin, sequenced to take into account the
datory interventions, every elementary Sugai, and Kameenui (1994) offered a developing maturity and cognitive abil-
school should consider having two com- reconceptualized curriculum for devel- ity of students in the K-8 grade range.
ponents in place at all times: (a) a well- oping, implementing, and sustaining This program contains both school and
thought-out and carefully implemented schoolwide discipline systems that are parent involvement components and is
schoolwide discipline plan, and (b) sys- comprehensive, proactive, and instruc- being widely adopted by school districts
tematic application of what has been tional. In this curriculum, structures and nationally even though it is relatively
learned over the past two decades about procedures for facilitating staff devel- new. Because the program requires train-
effective schooling and teaching. If opment, team-based decision making, ing, it contains curricular materials and
implemented with treatment integrity, and sustained effort are emphasized. parent handbooks for each developmen-
these two interventions would likely At the optional level, additional tal level. The curriculum's content is
make significant contributions in estab- universal interventions can be consid- taught by classroom teachers using the
lishing an effective, high-performance ered, depending upon a schooPs self- same instructional procedures as for
school that produces desired outcomes assessment of need. These interven- teaching academic content. Second Step
for a majority of students. We consider tions address violence prevention and contains 30 skills that are taught for
them to be a mandatory part of any bullying/mean-spirited teasing. Violence approximately 30 minutes daily over an
school-based, primary prevention strat- prevention and school safety are emerg- extended implementation period (i.e.,
egy designed to address antisocial be- ing as major themes of concern in U.S. 3 to 6 months). Symbolic modeling,
havior patterns among at-risk students. school systems. Mean-spirited teasing problem solving, role plays, discussion,
Both of these universal interventions and bullying is an escalating problem question and answer, and responding
are ideally suited for consideration, de- that many schools are experiencing. to carefully structured and visually pre-
sign, and implementation by school site Traditionally, schools have not done sented scenarios are used to teach con-
councils and schoolwide assistance very well in controlling this obnoxious, tent.
teams, with the participation of entire and potentially damaging, form of Evaluation studies reported by the
school staffs. The knowledge bases for behavior. More ominously, it often Committee for Children of the Second
effective teaching and schooling as well transforms into sexual harassment in Step curricular program (Committee for
as for the establishment of schoolwide the upper elementary and middle school Children, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1992) in-
discipline systems are well developed. grades as students mature. Parents of dicate that: (a) perspective taking and
There are many reference sources and school-age girls are becoming increas- social problem-solving skills improved
materials representing preferred prac- ingly concerned about this phenomenon significantly following participation in
tices that can be implemented effec- (Garrity, Jens, Porter, Sager, & Short- the program, and (b) Second Step stu-
tively. The Association for Supervision Camilli, 1994). dents showed superior skill levels over
and Curriculum Development (ASCD), The OJJDPs (1995) Guide for lmple* matched control students in their re-
for example, has developed a superb staff meriting a Comprehensive Strategy for sponses to hypothetical social-conflict
inservice program for implementing the Serious, Violent and Chronic Juvenile situations. A 3-year longitudinal study
knowledge base on effective schooling Offenders provides an excellent review is currently underway to assess the
JOURNAL OF EM TIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS, OCTOBER 1996, VOL. 4, NO. 4 ?fU