Instrumentation: Theory and Practice, Part 1: Principles of Measurements

147 Pages·2022·5.311 MB·English

by  Issam Abu-Mahfouz

Synthesis Lectures on
Mechanical Engineering
Issam Abu-Mahfouz
Instrumentation:
Theory and
Practice, Part 1
Principles of Measurements
Synthesis Lectures on Mechanical
Engineering
This series publishes short books in mechanical engineering (ME), the engineering branch
that combines engineering, physics and mathematics principles with materials science to
design, analyze, manufacture, and maintain mechanical systems. It involves the production
and usage of heat and mechanical power for the design, production and operation of
machines and tools. This series publishes within all areas of ME and follows the ASME
technical division categories.
Issam Abu-Mahfouz
Instrumentation: Theory
and Practice, Part 1
Principles of Measurements
Issam Abu-Mahfouz
Pennsylvania State University Harrisburg
Middletown, PA, USA
ISSN 2573-3168 ISSN 2573-3176 (electronic)
Synthesis Lectures on Mechanical Engineering
ISBN 978-3-031-15245-0 ISBN 978-3-031-15246-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15246-7
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Preface
In today’s world, measurements and sensors are fundamental to all facets of our daily
life. This Part I of ‘Instrumentation: Theory and Practice’ emphasizes simple and concise
coverage of the fundamental aspects of measuring systems. It is designed to provide the
reader with essential knowledge regarding signals, signal analysis, signal conditioning
circuits, and data acquisition systems.
This textbook is intended for use as an introductory one semester course at the junior
level of an undergraduate program. It is also very relevant for technicians, engineers, and
researchers who had no formal training in instrumentation and wish to engage in experi-
mental measurements. The prerequisites are a basic knowledge of multivariable calculus,
introductory physics, and a familiarity with basic electrical circuits and components.
The book chapters are organized as follows; Chap. 1 introduces the measuring process
and the basics of standards in the field of measurements. A short section on smart sensors
is also presented. Chapter 2 discusses the common types of signals and the dynamics
of measuring systems’ responses. It concludes with the Fourier transform and frequency
spectrum analysis of time signals. An important task in measurements is the analysis of
the collected data and the quantification of the measurement uncertainties. These topics
are covered in Chap. 3 with emphasis on types of errors and the use of statistical analy-
sis. Topics of signal connectivity, signal conditioning, and processing using analog circuits
such as the Wheatstone bridge and op-amps are presented in Chap. 4. Chapter 5 is ded-
icated to discussing fundamentals of transistors, digital logic circuits with applications
for both combinational and sequential logic. Data acquisition systems (DASs) and the
digitization of analog signals are presented in Chap. 6 with emphasis on analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs).
Each chapter includes illustrative figures, relevant electric circuits, and is comple-
mented with well-designed examples and problems. I hope the reader will find this book
clear and useful as a first step in understanding the principles of measurements.
Middletown, PA, USA Issam Abu-Mahfouz
v
vi Preface
Acknowledgments I would very much like to acknowledge and thank my family for their encour-
agement, patience, and support. I would also like to thank and recognize the administration at Penn
State Harrisburg for the encouragement and for granting me the sabbatical time to help me complete
this book. I am particularly grateful to Executive Editor Mr. Paul Petralia and the entire staff at
Springer Nature for their consistent encouragement and support.
I would appreciate and welcome feedback comments about the book by writing directly to the
author at [email protected].
Contents
Part I Principles of Measurements
1 Introduction ......................................................... 3
1.1 The Measuring Process .......................................... 3
1.1.1 Tire Pressure Gauge ..................................... 4
1.1.2 Potentiometers .......................................... 6
1.1.3 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer ............................. 6
1.2 Standards ...................................................... 7
1.3 Smart Sensors .................................................. 9
1.4 Examples ...................................................... 10
1.5 Problems ....................................................... 11
References ........................................................... 12
2 Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Devices .......................... 13
2.1 Introduction .................................................... 13
2.2 Types of Signals ................................................ 14
2.3 Measurement Systems Models .................................... 17
2.3.1 Zeroth-Order System ..................................... 18
2.3.2 First-Order System ....................................... 18
2.3.3 Second-Order System .................................... 20
2.4 Signals in Time and Frequency Domains ........................... 25
2.5 Examples ...................................................... 29
2.6 Problems ....................................................... 34
References ........................................................... 36
3 Data Analysis ........................................................ 39
3.1 Introduction .................................................... 39
3.2 Statistical Analysis .............................................. 39
3.3 The Normal (Gaussian) Distribution ............................... 42
3.4 The Student’s t-Distribution ...................................... 45
3.5 Chi-Square (χ2) Distribution and the Goodness-of-Fit Test ........... 47
3.6 Errors and Uncertainty ........................................... 49
vii
viii Contents
3.6.1 Uncertainty Analysis ..................................... 54
3.6.2 Instrumentation Errors .................................... 55
3.6.3 Error Propagation ........................................ 56
3.7 Regression Analysis ............................................. 57
3.8 Examples ...................................................... 59
3.9 Problems ....................................................... 64
References ........................................................... 65
4 Signal Conditioning Circuits and Devices ............................... 67
4.1 Introduction .................................................... 67
4.2 Current-Based Input Circuit ...................................... 67
4.3 Voltage Divider Circuit .......................................... 68
4.4 Wheatstone Bridge .............................................. 69
4.4.1 Null Condition .......................................... 70
4.4.2 Deflection Mode ......................................... 71
4.5 Impedance Matching ............................................ 72
4.5.1 Signal Integrity .......................................... 72
4.5.2 Maximum Power Consumption ............................ 73
4.6 Operational Amplifiers ........................................... 74
4.6.1 The Buffer OP-AMP ..................................... 75
4.6.2 The Non-inverting OP-AMP .............................. 75
4.6.3 The Inverting OP-AMP ................................... 76
4.6.4 The Summing OP-AMP .................................. 77
4.6.5 The Differential Op-Amp ................................. 78
4.6.6 The Derivative OP-AMP ................................. 80
4.6.7 The Integrator Op-Amp .................................. 80
4.6.8 The Comparator OP-AMP ................................ 82
4.6.9 Voltage-To-Current Converter ............................. 82
4.6.10 Current-To-Voltage Converter ............................. 83
4.7 Filters ......................................................... 83
4.8 Schmitt Trigger ................................................. 85
4.9 Examples ...................................................... 88
4.10 Problems ....................................................... 94
References ........................................................... 95
5 Semiconductors and Logic Circuits .................................... 97
5.1 Introduction .................................................... 97
5.2 The Diode ..................................................... 98
5.3 Bipolar Junction Transistors ...................................... 98
5.4 Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors ................. 100
5.5 Digital Logic ................................................... 102
5.5.1 Combinational Logic Circuits ............................. 102
Contents ix
5.5.2 Sequential Logic Circuits ................................. 103
5.5.3 Examples ............................................... 110
5.6 Problems ....................................................... 112
References ........................................................... 114
6 Data Acquisition Systems ............................................. 115
6.1 Introduction .................................................... 115
6.2 Data Acquisition System (DAQ) .................................. 116
6.2.1 Resolution and the Quantization Error ...................... 117
6.2.2 Sample and Hold Circuit ................................. 119
6.2.3 Sampling Rate .......................................... 121
6.3 Digital-To-Analog Converters ..................................... 121
6.3.1 Summing Amplifier DAC ................................. 121
6.3.2 R-2R Ladder DAC ....................................... 124
6.4 Analog-To-Digital Converters ..................................... 125
6.4.1 Single-Slope ADC ....................................... 126
6.4.2 Dual-Slope ADC ........................................ 127
6.4.3 Sigma-Delta ADC ....................................... 129
6.4.4 Flash ADC ............................................. 129
6.4.5 Successive Approximation ADC ........................... 131
6.5 Examples ...................................................... 132
6.6 Problems ....................................................... 136
References ........................................................... 137