Table Of ContentINSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: FOUNDATIONS
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INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: FOUNDATIONS
edited by
Robert M. Gagné
Florida State University
First published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers
10 Industrial Avenue
Mahwah, New Jersey 07430
Transferred to digital printing 2010 by Routledge
Routledge
270 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10016
2 Park Square, Milton Park
Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Instructional technology.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Educational technology. 2. Instructional systems.
I. Gagné, Robert Mills, 1916– .
LB1028.3.I565 1986 371.3′07′8 86-6328
ISBN 0-89859-626-2
ISBN 0-89859-8 78-8 (pbk.)
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION
Robert M. Gagné
Knowledge Sources
Other Resources
What is Instructional Technology?
Contents of this Book
2 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: A HISTORY
Robert A. Reiser
Audiovisual Devices
The Systems Approach
Individualized Instruction
IPI, PLAN, and IGE
Conclusion
3 FOUNDATIONS IN LEARNING RESEARCH
Robert M. Gagné and Robert Glaser
Learning Research
Learning as Cognition
The Importance of Short-Term Memory
Learning Complex Performances
Knowledge Organization for Problem Solving
Mental Models
Self-Regulation
4 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN
Bela H. Banathy
The Knowledge Base
Design Inquiry
The Systems Complex of Education
System Levels as Primary Levels
Learning Experience Level Organization
Implications of Societal-Based Organization
Complementary Approaches to Design
5 IDENTIFYING AND SPECIFYING REQUIREMENTS FOR INSTRUCTION
Roger Kaufman and Sivasailam Thiagarajan
Concepts of Instructional Technology
A Useful Frame of Reference
Specifying Objectives
Procedures for Specifying Requirements
Needs Analysis
Specification of Methods, Media, Modes
Summary
6 JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
Paul F. Merrill
Job Analysis
Task Analysis
Summary
7 LEARNING SITUATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS
Charles M. Reigeluth and Ruth V. Curtis
Affective Domain
Motor Skill Domain
Cognitive Domain
Sequencing Strategies
A General Sequencing Model
Micro-Level Strategies
Three Instructional Models for the Micro-Level
Motivational-Strategy Components
Approaches to Instruction
Management Strategies
Conclusion
8 LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
Sigmund Tobias
Interactive Research
Types of Interactions
Adaptive Instruction
Anxiety
Study Skills, Motivation, and Control
General Discussion
9 DISPLAYS AND COMMUNICATION
Malcolm L. Fleming
Some Definitions
Attention
Perception
Learning
Concept Formation
Other Cognitive Processes
Summary
10 INNOVATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Gwen C. Nugent
Educational Television: Broadcast
Videotape Recorders
Instructional Television Fixed Service
Cable
Satellite
Teleconferencing
Fiber Optics
Teletext
Vidiplex
Audio and Video Improvements
Videodisc
Videotex
Summary and Conclusions
11 THE EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER-AIDED EDUCATIONAL DELIVERY SYSTEMS
C. Victor Bunderson and Dillon K. Inouye
Delivery Systems for Education
The Evolution of Work Technologies
The Evolution of CAE Applications
The Evolution of Knowledge Technologies
Summary
12 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND COMPUTER-BASED LEARNING
Robert D. Tennyson and Ok Choon Park
Model-Based ICAI
Theory-Based AI CBL
Summary
Future Directions of AI CBL
13 ASSESSING INSTRUCTIONAL OUTCOMES
Eva L. Baker and Harold F. O’Neil, Jr.
Measurement: The Basics
CRM as a Field of Study
Test Design for Criterion-Referenced Measurement
Domain-Referenced Achievement Testing
Evaluating Instructional Technology
Summary
14 PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS
Robert M. Morgan
Planning for System Maintenance
Planning for Systems Change
Analysis of Macro-Educational Systems
Macro-System Variables
Evaluation and Research Requirements
The Planning Process
Applications of Analysis and Planning
15 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Robert K. Branson and Gerald Grow
ISD and the Distribution of Knowledge
The Model Meets the World: Applications
The Model Meets the World: Advice to Developers
The Model Meets the World: Prospects for ISD
Summary and Conclusions
16 FACTORS AFFECTING UTILIZATION
Ernest Burkman
The ID Utilization Problem
Quality as a Stimulus for Adoption
User-Oriented Development
Implementing User-Centered Development
AUTHOR INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: FOUNDATIONS
1 Introduction
Robert M. Gagné
Florida State University
Several kinds of events must contribute to the confluence that defines a field of scholarly interest and
effort. When such a field is not old enough to be counted as a traditional discipline, the influence of
certain trends can be identified and observed as they converge, while other influences remain indirect
and less clearly perceivable. Instructional technology is a field of this nontraditional sort. Broadly
speaking, two sets of events have contributed to its development. One set comprises the continuing and
remarkable growth of new things, processes, and ideas that constitute what we mean by technology. A
second and equally essential factor has been the influence of a growing number of people of sound
intellect with an analytical cast of mind, a dedication to the promise of human learning, and a vision of
how to promote the spread of human knowledge. Clearly, this vision is one of bringing to bear on human
beings the most sophisticated set of procedures and machines that can be designed for making learning
readily available to all people, and in assuring its effectiveness in developing the capabilities that are
learning’s results.
The people who acquired this vision and led others to it in this century were often initially intrigued
by the potentialities of hardware devices such as the stereopticon, the slide projector, the motion-picture
camera and projector. Since learning always involves stimulation of the learner, it was apparent that
these devices made possible stimulation for learning that was both deliberately designed and
replicable. Consideration of these features raised questions for the intellectually curious. Could the
stimulation required for particular learning objectives be designed and recorded on film, so as to be
presented many times to many different learners? Could such recorded presentations be employed to
circumvent the unfortunate but often unavoidable variability in instruction quality that marked poor
teaching? Could certain identifiable portions of presentations for learning, well established in their
content and objectives, be made available for teacher use as standard segments of instruction, replicable
from class to class? Could some kinds of stimulation for learning be presented by film-related devices
that would be difficult or impossible to present in other ways? And as a possibility, could presentations
be devised that in some respects captured the most ingenious techniques of superior teaching?
With the addition of synchronized sound to the visual display, the same kinds of questions were raised
in the minds of people who now were able to characterize this field of interest as audio-visual. Sound,
after all, added another sensory channel to the spectrum of stimulation available for instructional design.
By so doing, it raised a host of possibilities about the potential synergy between the two sensory
channels. Interestingly, many of these questions have not yet received satisfactory answers, and the
investigation of visual presentations in relation to sound presentations continues today as a promising
area of research.
As for the people who were attracted to this field of scholarship and professional activity, they
evidenced a variety of preferences and interests. Some came to view the audiovisual field as made up
primarily of the technical knowledge required to operate machines—cameras, projectors, recorders, and
tape players, as well as the materials involved in their operation, such as film and tape. Others
concentrated their attention on questions of accessibility of devices and materials of an audiovisual
nature to the variety of users that might be present within an institution or a training organization. And
still others focused their curiosity on the challenging and difficult questions of what good were these
things for education? What characteristics made them of particular value for the promotion of learning?
It was this third set of people, not large in numbers, but strong in their beliefs and their dedication, who
collectively possessed the vision that foresaw the promise of instructional technology.
Yoon, H.-W., 40, 48
York, R.L., 351, 372
Young, J.J., 275, 282
Young, M.D., 345, 372
Yourdon, E., 150, 172
Z
Zaltman, G., 442, 449, 450, 455
Zemke, R., 401, 428
Zigon, J., 132, 140
Zissman, S.B., 14, 45
Zucman, E., 180, 203
Zwimpfer, L., 276, 282
