Table Of ContentINSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORIES AND
MODELS, VOLUME IV
Instructional-Design Theories and Models, Volume IV provides a research-based description of the
current state of instructional theory for the learner-centered paradigm of education, as well as a clear
indication of how different theories and models interrelate. Significant changes have occurred in
learning and instructional theory since the publication of Volume III, including advances in brain-based
learning, learning sciences, information technologies, internet-based communication, a concern for
customizing the student experience to maximize effectiveness, and scaling instructional environments to
maximize efficiency.
In order to complement the themes of Volume I (commonality and complementarity among theories of
instruction), Volume II (diversity of theories), and Volume III (building a common knowledge base), the
theme of Volume IV is shifting the paradigm of instruction from teacher-centered to learner-centered and
integrating design theories of instruction, assessment, and curriculum. Chapters in Volume IV are
collected into three primary sections: a comprehensive view of the learner-centered paradigm of
education and training, elaborations on parts of that view for a variety of K-12 and higher education
settings, and theories that address ways to move toward the learner-centered paradigm within the
teacher-centered paradigm.
Instructional-Design Theories and Models, Volume IV is an essential book for anyone interested in
exploring more powerful ways of fostering human learning and development and thinking creatively
about ways to best meet the needs of learners in all kinds of learning contexts.
Charles M. Reigeluth is a speaker/consultant for paradigm change in education and Professor Emeritus
in the Instructional Systems Technology Department at Indiana University, USA.
Brian J. Beatty is Associate Vice President for Academic Affairs Operations and former Chair and
Associate Professor in the Instructional Technologies Department at San Francisco State University,
USA.
Rodney D. Myers is an independent scholar and consultant who teaches courses in instructional design
and technology and is Adjunct Lecturer in the Instructional Systems Technology Department at Indiana
University, USA.
INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN
THEORIES AND MODELS,
VOLUME IV
HISTORICITY
The Learner-Centered Paradigm
of Education
Edited by Charles M. Reigeluth,
Brian J. Beatty, and Rodney D. Myers
First published 2017
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
The right of Charles M. Reigeluth, Brian J. Beatty, and Rodney D. Myers to be identified as the authors of the editorial
material of this work, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77
and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-1-138-01293-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-79547-8 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK
DEDICATION
We dedicate this book to all those educators and educational researchers who have pioneered methods
and guidance for the learner-centered paradigm of education, often facing huge obstacles, resistance, and
skepticism. Their largely unsung Herculean efforts have contributed greatly to the inevitable massive
transformation of educational and training systems so sorely needed for post-industrial societies.
– C.M.R., B.J.B., & R.D.M.
I also dedicate this book to my grandchildren—Morgan, Eliza, Jillian, and Dane—and to all other
children who so desperately need an educational system designed to meet their needs.
– C.M.R.
I also dedicate this book to my wife Nellie, who sacrificed many hours of time together so that this work
could be realized, and to my children Elizabeth, Teresa, Jennifer, Katherine, Angela, and Christopher,
who have all benefited from learner-centered practices throughout their formal education. May their
experience be more common throughout our education systems.
– B.J.B.
I also dedicate this book to Charlie and Brian for inviting me to join them in piloting this book on its
odyssey, and to the crew of authors who helped us to overcome the wrath of gods and monsters and
arrive safely on the shores of publication; but mostly it’s dedicated to my wife Juliana, for having the
patience of Penelope.
– R.D.M.
CONTENTS
List of Figures and Tables
Preface
UNIT 1
Fundamental Principles of the Learner-Centered Paradigm of Education
1 The Learner-Centered Paradigm of Education
Charles M. Reigeluth, Rodney D. Myers, and Dabae Lee
2 Principles for Competency-Based Education
Richard A. Voorhees and Alice Bedard-Voorhees
3 Principles for Task-Centered Instruction
Gregory M. Francom
4 Principles for Personalized Instruction
William R. Watson and Sunnie Lee Watson
5 A New Paradigm of Curriculum
Marc Prensky
UNIT 2
More Detailed Designs for the Learner-Centered Paradigm
6 Designing Maker-Based Instruction
Christian S. McKay and Krista D. Glazewski
7 Designing Collaborative Production of Digital Media
T.J. Kalaitzidis, Breanne Litts, and Erica Rosenfeld Halverson
8 Designing Games for Learning
Rodney D. Myers and Charles M. Reigeluth
9 Designing Instruction for Self-Regulated Learning
Yeol Huh and Charles M. Reigeluth
10 Designing Instructional Coaching
David S. Knight, Mike Hock, and Jim Knight
11 Designing Technology for the Learner-Centered Paradigm of Education
Charles M. Reigeluth
UNIT 3
Steps Toward the Learner-Centered Paradigm
12 Designing Instruction for Flipped Classrooms
Jeremy F. Strayer
13 Gamification Designs for Instruction
Karl M. Kapp
14 Design Considerations for Mobile Learning
Thomas Cochrane and Vickel Narayan
15 Designing Just-in-Time Instruction
Gregor M. Novak and Brian J. Beatty
Index
FIGURES AND TABLES
Figures
2.1 A Competency Hierarchy
6.1 Design Cycle
6.2 Dedicated Space Plans
6.3 Dedicated Space Sketch
6.4 3D Printer on Desk for Pop-Up Space
6.5 Mobile Maker Cart with 3D Printer and Laser Cutter
6.6 Interactive Book with Circuits that Connect to the Makey Makey Interface Board
6.7 Circuitry on the Page Triggers Programmed Events on the Computer Screen
6.8 Scratch Programming Interface
9.1 Triadic Interplay in Social Cognitive Theory
9.2 The Continuous-Change Framework for Self-Regulated Learning
9.3 Merrill’s Three-Part Skill Development Model
11.1 Proposed Major Functions of PIES. Assessment is Integrated with Instruction
11.2 Proposed Information Schematic for PIES
12.1 A Theoretical Framework for the Universal Principles for Flipped Instruction
14.1 A Heutagogical Framework for Mobile Learning
14.2 Twitter Activity as Represented by TAGSExplorer
15.1 Just-in-Time Teaching Feedback Loop
Tables
1.1 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
2.1 Design Principles for Competency-Based Instruction
2.2 A Checklist for Evaluating Implementation of Competency-Based Education
5.1 Subcategories of Effective Thinking, Action, and Relationships
7.1 Values of NLP Design
7.2 Universal Principles of a Production-Oriented Approach to Learning
7.3 Situational Considerations of a Production-Oriented Approach to Learning
7.4 Principles of Critique and Reflection
7.5 Situational Considerations of Critique and Reflection
7.6 The Principles of Engaging Audience in NLP
7.7 Situational Considerations in the Use of Audience for NLP
7.8 Principles for Reframing Teaching as Mentorship
7.9 Situational Considerations Involved in Reframing Teaching as Mentorship
8.1 Summary of Principles in Category 1: Creating a Vision of the Game
8.2 Summary of Principles in Category 2: Designing the Game Space
8.3 Summary of Principles in Category 3: Designing the Instructional Space
8.4 Summary of Principles in Category 4: Considerations for Designing the Game Space
8.5 Summary of Principles in Category 5: Considerations for Designing the Instructional Space
8.6 Summary of Universal and Situational Principles
9.1 Key Concepts of Past SRL Frameworks
11.1 A Summary of PIES’ Design Features
12.1 Wenger’s Descriptive Principles for Instructional Design
12.2 Values of Flipped Instruction
12.3 Situational Principles for Flipped Instruction with a Discussion Approach
12.4 Situational Principles for Flipped Instruction with a Problem-Based Instruction Approach
13.1 Common Game Elements
13.2 Categories of Game Elements
13.3 Universal and Situational Design Principles for Gamification
14.1 A Framework for Using Mobile Social Media to Design Creative Pedagogies
14.2 Overview of the #MoCo360 Project
15.1 Comparison of Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction and JiTT Feedback Loop
15.2 Shaping Lesson Flow with Student Responses
15.3 Summary of Universal Principles
PREFACE
How to help people learn better. That is what instructional theory is all about. It describes a variety of
methods of instruction (different ways of facilitating human learning and development), and when to use
—and not use—each of those methods.
Volume I of Instructional-Design Theories and Models (1983) provides a “snapshot in time” of the
status of instructional theory in the early 1980s. Its main purpose was to raise awareness of instructional
theories, which were largely overlooked in the shadows of ADDIE and other ISD process models. Most
of the theories are classics and are still very useful today.
Volume II (1999) provides a concise summary of a broad sampling of work in the late 1990s on a new
paradigm of instructional theories for the Information Age. Its main purpose was to raise awareness of
the diversity of theories that provide a customized or learner-centered learning experience in all
different domains of human learning and development. It also raised awareness of the importance of
values in instructional theory.
Volume III (2009) was born out of a concern about the extent to which instructional theorists seemed
to be working in relative isolation from each other, building their own view of instruction with little
regard to building on what knowledge already existed and what terminology had already been used for
constructs they also describe. Therefore, Volume III took some early steps in building a common
knowledge base about instruction with a common use of terms. It also described some tools for
continuing to build a common knowledge base.
These three volumes cover very different territory. None of them was intended to replace its
predecessors. We have made a conscious effort to keep duplication to a minimum, so readers interested
in mastering the art and science of designing powerful instruction will benefit from all of them. Each
volume includes chapter forewords that summarize their main contributions, to give readers a quick
sense of whether or not a chapter addresses their particular interests and needs.
Why a Volume IV?
Our initial thought was to conclude this series with Volume III. However, new instructional methods are
continually developed as advances are made in brain sciences, information technology, and other
relevant fields. Furthermore, as we have evolved deeper into the Information Age, it has become clear
that a change in the paradigm of instruction from teacher-centered to learner-centered requires parallel
changes in aspects of education and training systems that are technically beyond the scope of theories of
instruction.1
Using systems thinking, we recognize that the learner-centered paradigm of instruction is closely
interrelated with different paradigms of instructional management, assessment, and even curriculum.
First, regarding instructional management, truly learner-centered instruction requires student progress to
be based on learning rather than on time. This is an instructional management strategy as defined in
Chapter 1 of Volume I (p. 8), and has consequently not been addressed by instructional theories. Second,
regarding assessment, truly learner-centered instruction requires student learning to be compared to a
standard of achievement (criterion-referenced—to know when the learner is ready to move on) rather
than to the learning of one’s peers (norm-referenced) and consequently should be integrated with the
instruction rather than being a separate activity. Third, regarding curriculum, truly learner-centered
instruction requires decisions about what to learn that are responsive to student needs in a society that is
much more complex than that of our Industrial-Age forebears.
In sum, decisions about what to teach, how to teach it, and how to assess it must all be dramatically
different now compared to those that were appropriate for the Industrial Age, and those decisions should
be made together because they are interdependent. That interdependency has not been addressed in
