Table Of ContentINDUSTRIAL MINERALS
AND
THEIR USES
OH OH OH
..
OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH
OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH
A Handbook & Formulary
v
Copyright @ 1996 by Noyes Publications
No part of this \X)ok may be reproduced or utilized in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any informa-
tion storage and retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the Publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-29173
ISBN: 0-8155-1408-5
Printed in the United States
Published in the United States of America by
Noyes Publication
369 Fairview Ave.
Westwood, New Jersey 07675
10987 65432 I
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Industrial minerals and their uses: a handbook and formulary / edited
by Peter A Ciullo.
p. C!D.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-8155-1408-5
1. Inorganic compounds--Industrial applications--Handbooks.
manuals, etc. I. Ciullo, Peter A, 1954-
TnOO.I52 1996
661--dc20 96-29173
CIP
NOTICE
To the best of our knowledge the information
in this publication is accurate; however the
Publisher and Editor do not assume any
responsibility or liability for the accuracy or
completeness of, or consequences arising
from, such information. This guide does not
purport to contain detailed user instructions,
and by its range and scope could not possibly
do so.
Compounding raw materials can be toxic, and
therefore due caution should always be
exercised in the use of these hazardous
materials. Final determination of the
suitability of any information or product for
use contemplated by any user, and the manner
of that use is the sole responsibility of the
user. We strongly recommend that users seek
and adhere to a manufacturer’s or supplier’s
current instructions for handling each material
they use.
vi
PREFACE
The technical orientation of most formulators and compounders is chemistry,
not mineralogy. They may have a natural grasp of their chemical ingredients,
but many lack training or background in the minerals they use as “fillers”.
The reference works on formulating technology for the various minerals-
consuming industries likewise often treat the mineral additives in a cursory
fashion, if at all. My primary purpose in compiling Industrial Minerals and
Their Uses has been to provide product development professionals − novice
and seasoned − with a better understanding of their mineral raw materials.
My hope is that through this understanding they can develop their skills in
matching the most appropriate minerals to their applications while gaining
an appreciation of both the common ground and differences in approach
they have with counterparts in industries other than their own.
Industrial Minerals and Their Uses accordingly offers a concise profile
of the structure, properties and uses of eighteen of the most commonly
employed industrial minerals, plus a comprehensive overview of how and
why these minerals are used in eight consuming industries. Paints and
coatings, paper, rubber, adhesives and sealants, and plastics technology are
reviewed as major beneficiaries of the use of minerals as functional
additives. Chapters on pharmaceuticals and pesticides are included as a
contrast in perspective regarding the selection and use of mineral additives,
while the chapter on ceramics and glass is offered as an introduction to the
use of minerals as primary raw materials or reactants, with chemicals
relegated to the role of additives.
While formulators and compounders are the main audience for
Industrial Minerals and Their Uses, the producers and marketers of the
industrial minerals themselves will undoubtedly find this book a valuable
resource for identifying potential new markets for current products, and for
discovering opportunities for the development of new ones. It is, in fact,
because the industrial minerals producers have been so successful in
tailoring the particle size, shape, surface area, and surface properties of their
raw materials that the classification “filler”, although still used generically,
is now an anachronism and generally misapplied.
In preparing Industrial Minerals and Their Uses, I have been very
fortunate in obtaining the aid of minerals and formulating experts whose
knowledge and experience extend well beyond my own. They have
generously contributed their time and expertise in the form of several
chapters in this book. For this I am deeply grateful. I must also sincerely
thank Frank Alsobrook of Alsobrook & Co., Inc. and Dr. Slim Thompson,
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mineralogist emeritus at R.T. Vanderbilt Co., Inc. and my minerals mentor,
for their much appreciated editorial attention to chapters one and two. My
gratitude extends as well to R.T. Vanderbilt Co. for providing the
opportunity over the past twenty years to learn about and contribute to the
industrial minerals and their uses, and in particular to Bob Ohm, editor of
the Vanderbilt Rubber Handbook for alerting me to the unsuspected (i.e.,
nerve-wracking) challenges of compiling a book of this nature, and most
especially for not discouraging me from doing it anyway.
Above all, my thanks and my love to my wife Claudia, and to Marissa
and Adam, my children, for their unwavering support and understanding in
this and all my seemingly neverending book projects.
Peter A. Ciullo
iv
CONTENTS
1. SILICATE STUCTURES___________________________________ 1
Quartz______________________________________________________ 3
Feldspar_____________________________________________________ 4
Wollastonite _________________________________________________ 4
Phyllosilicates________________________________________________ 5
Kaolinite____________________________________________________ 6
Pyrophyllite__________________________________________________ 7
Serpentines __________________________________________________ 7
Talc________________________________________________________ 8
Hormite Clay________________________________________________ 10
Chlorite____________________________________________________ 11
Vermiculite_________________________________________________ 12
Mica ______________________________________________________ 14
Smectite Clay _______________________________________________ 15
2. THE INDUSTRIAL MINERALS __________________________ 17
Asbestos___________________________________________________ 18
Barite______________________________________________________ 21
Calcium Carbonate ___________________________________________ 24
Diatomite___________________________________________________ 29
Feldspar____________________________________________________ 32
Gypsum____________________________________________________ 35
Hormite____________________________________________________ 37
Kaolin_____________________________________________________ 41
Mica ______________________________________________________ 45
Nepheline Syenite____________________________________________ 49
Perlite _____________________________________________________ 52
Pyrophyllite_________________________________________________ 55
Silica______________________________________________________ 58
Smectite ___________________________________________________ 63
Talc_______________________________________________________ 68
Vermiculite_________________________________________________ 72
Wollastonite ________________________________________________ 75
Zeolite_____________________________________________________ 78
3. MINERAL SURFACE MODIFICATION____________________ 83
Modification vs. Treatment_____________________________________ 84
The Coupling Agents _________________________________________ 85
Modified Mineral Benefits _____________________________________ 93
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4. PAINTS & COATINGS___________________________________ 99
Types Of Coatings _________________________________________ 100
Architectural Coatings____________________________________ 101
Industrial Coatings_______________________________________ 101
Convertible And Non-Convertible Coatings___________________ 102
Formulating_______________________________________________ 104
Components____________________________________________ 104
Characteristics__________________________________________ 104
Important Properties _____________________________________ 108
Raw Materials_____________________________________________ 109
Binders________________________________________________ 109
Extender Pigments_______________________________________ 125
Solvents_______________________________________________ 129
Pigments ______________________________________________ 132
Additives _________________________________________________ 137
Dispersants And Surfactants _______________________________ 137
Rheological Agents______________________________________ 138
Driers_________________________________________________ 144
Coalescing Agents_______________________________________ 145
Plasticizers_____________________________________________ 146
Biocides_______________________________________________ 146
Antifoams _____________________________________________ 147
Glycol ________________________________________________ 147
Antiskinning Agents _____________________________________ 148
Corrosion Inhibitors______________________________________ 148
Flash Rust Inhibitors _____________________________________ 149
Photostabilizers _________________________________________ 149
Technology _______________________________________________ 150
Pigment Dispersion______________________________________ 150
Application Forms_______________________________________ 152
Test Methods______________________________________________ 155
5. PAPERMAKING _______________________________________ 161
Pulping___________________________________________________ 163
Stone Groundwood ______________________________________ 163
Refiner Pulping _________________________________________ 165
Semi-Chemical Pulping___________________________________ 165
Chemical Pulping _______________________________________ 166
Papermaking______________________________________________ 170
Stock Preparation________________________________________ 170
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The Fourdrinier Former___________________________________ 171
Water Recovery_________________________________________ 172
The Twin Wire Former ___________________________________ 173
The Cylinder Former_____________________________________ 173
The Press Section________________________________________ 173
The Dryer Section _______________________________________ 174
The Size Press__________________________________________ 175
The Calender Stack ______________________________________ 175
The Reel_______________________________________________ 175
The Supercalender_______________________________________ 176
Paper Pigments____________________________________________ 177
Paper Filling ______________________________________________ 177
Opacity________________________________________________ 177
Brightness/Whiteness ____________________________________ 178
Gloss _________________________________________________ 178
Print Quality____________________________________________ 178
Formation______________________________________________ 178
Economy ______________________________________________ 179
The Perfect Filler________________________________________ 179
Papermaking and pH_____________________________________ 180
Minerals in Acid Papermaking _____________________________ 180
Minerals in Alkaline Papermaking __________________________ 184
Paper Coating_____________________________________________ 185
Roll Coaters____________________________________________ 186
Air-Knife Coaters _______________________________________ 186
Blade Coaters___________________________________________ 187
Minerals in Paper Coatings________________________________ 188
Other Coating Pigments___________________________________ 191
Pitch Control______________________________________________ 193
Paper Recycling ___________________________________________ 194
Microparticle Retention_____________________________________ 195
6. RUBBER ______________________________________________ 197
Compounding Materials ____________________________________ 200
Elastomers________________________________________________ 200
Natural Rubber (NR)_____________________________________ 202
Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR)___________________________ 204
Polybutadiene Rubber (BR)________________________________ 205
Butyl Rubber (IIR)_______________________________________ 206
Halobutyl Rubber (CIIR, BIIR)_____________________________ 207
Neoprene (CR)__________________________________________ 207
ix
Nitrile Rubber (NBR) ____________________________________ 208
Ethylene Propylene Rubbers (EPM, EPDM)___________________ 209
Polyisoprene (IR)________________________________________ 210
Chlorinated and Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CM, CSM)______ 211
Silicone Rubber_________________________________________ 212
Special Purpose Elastomers________________________________ 214
Sulfur-Based Cure Systems__________________________________ 216
Activators______________________________________________ 217
Accelerators____________________________________________ 217
Retarders ______________________________________________ 219
Crosslink Length ________________________________________ 220
Non-Sulfur Cure Systems ___________________________________ 220
Peroxides______________________________________________ 220
Difunctional Compounds__________________________________ 221
Metal Oxides___________________________________________ 221
Fillers____________________________________________________ 221
Filler Properties_________________________________________ 221
Filler Effects ___________________________________________ 227
Filler Types ____________________________________________ 231
Antidegradants____________________________________________ 247
Antioxidants____________________________________________ 247
Antiozonants ___________________________________________ 250
Other Additives____________________________________________ 251
Rubber Processing_________________________________________ 253
Mastication ____________________________________________ 253
Masterbatching _________________________________________ 253
Remilling______________________________________________ 254
Finish Mixing___________________________________________ 254
Extruding______________________________________________ 254
Calendering ____________________________________________ 255
Vulcanization___________________________________________ 255
Physical Testing Of Rubber__________________________________ 258
Processability___________________________________________ 259
Vulcanizate Tests________________________________________ 262
Weather and Ozone Resistance Tests ________________________ 269
Accelerated Aging_______________________________________ 271
Fluid Resistance_________________________________________ 272
Low-Temperature Properties_______________________________ 273
7. ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS___________________________ 275
Definition and Purpose of Adhesives and Sealants_______________ 275
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General Properties _______________________________________ 276
Adhesive and Sealant Applications ____________________________ 285
Packaging, Converting and Disposables_______________________ 285
Construction____________________________________________ 290
Transportation __________________________________________ 293
Adhesive and Sealant Processing______________________________ 297
Mixing ________________________________________________ 297
Application_____________________________________________ 300
Adhesive and Sealant Testing_________________________________ 300
Chemical Raw Materials – Polymers___________________________ 300
Natural Base Polymers____________________________________ 300
Oil Based Caulks ________________________________________ 303
Polymers for Evaporative Adhesives and Sealants _______________ 304
Thermoplastic Polymers___________________________________ 312
Reactive Base Polymers___________________________________ 315
Chemical Additives_________________________________________ 325
Fillers____________________________________________________ 332
Comparison Of Mineral Fillers _______________________________ 345
PVC Plastisol___________________________________________ 345
Epoxy Sealant___________________________________________ 345
Silicone Rubber RTV-1 Sealants ____________________________ 347
8. PLASTICS_____________________________________________ 353
Plastic Polymers ___________________________________________ 353
Polymer Types__________________________________________ 353
Special Considerations____________________________________ 355
Advantages and Disadvantages of Plastics ____________________ 360
Why Plastics Are Used ___________________________________ 362
Minerals In Plastics ________________________________________ 365
Surface Treatment of Minerals Used in Plastics ________________ 366
Effects of Mineral Addition on Plastics_______________________ 367
General Effects of Industrial Minerals on Plastics Properties______ 368
Special Effects__________________________________________ 368
Major End-Uses ___________________________________________ 371
Commodity Thermoplastics________________________________ 371
Poly(Vinyl Chloride)_____________________________________ 371
Polyolefins_____________________________________________ 373
Styrenics ______________________________________________ 378
Engineering Thermoplastics _______________________________ 378
Polyamides_____________________________________________ 379
Thermoplastic Polyesters__________________________________ 380
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