Industrial Applications of Batteries: From Cars to Aerospace and Energy Storage

793 Pages·2007·59.62 MB·English

by  Michel Broussely

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Industrial Applications
of Batteries
From Cars to
Aerospace and Energy Storage
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Prelims-N52160.fm Page iii Monday, November 27, 2006 7:16 AM
Industrial Applications
of Batteries
From Cars to
Aerospace and Energy Storage
Edited by
M. Broussely
SAFT
Speciality Battery Group
Poitiers, France
and
G. Pistoia
Rome, Italy
Amsterdam – Boston – Heidelberg – London – New York – Oxford – Paris
San Diego – San Francisco – Singapore – Sydney – Tokyo
Prelims-N52160.fm Page iv Monday, November 27, 2006 7:16 AM
Elsevier
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First edition 2007
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V
Preface
This book aims at updating the list of battery-powered industrial
applications and the improvements made in their batteries in terms of materials
and technological advances.
Actually, applications and batteries are interrelated: new or improved
applications stimulate the realization of new or improved batteries and vice
versa. In some cases, electrochemical systems with new electrode materials or
electrolytes have been produced, while in some others the improvements come
from better battery engineering. Electrolytes standing extreme temperatures
(Chapters ,1 6 and 12) or modified electrodes, e.g. lithiated Ni-Co oxide as a
positive for Lithium Ion batteries (Chapters 4 and 5), are examples of improved
active materials. New casings or new separators or management systems are
examples of technological improvements (Chapters 3, 4 and 13).
The number of electrochemical systems used is still fairly high. From
Chapter ,1 we may count ten nonaqueous batteries (with liquid, polymeric or
molten salt electrolytes), and, in Chapter 2, the same number of aqueous
batteries used in the main applications are reported.
It is remarkable that, among these systems, the oldest one, Lead Acid,
and the youngest one, Lithium Ion, have the largest shares of the secondary
battery market (in terms of value, including consumer market). Lead Acid,
dating back to 1859, has benefited from the automotive market, but is still
widely used (in some cases almost exclusively) in various segments, e.g. energy
storage, telecommunications and UPS (Chapter 7-9). Lithium Ion, born in the
early 1990s, owes itss uccess to consumer electronics, but is now being used in
a number of industrial applications, e.g. power tools, aerospace, asset tracking
and load leveling (Chapters 5, 6, 8, 11,12), and is appearing in hybrid electric
vehicles (Chapter 4).
Battery energy and power are continuously increasing, although, as is
obvious, at a different pace for the various chemistries. Simultaneously, the
battery safety is also increasing, as imposed by strict regulations and severe
tests. Especially at the industrial level, many systems are endowed with battery
management systems ensuring a high level of control (Chapter 13). It is
remarkable that, at the same time, our safety may receive in several instances a
benefit from the use of batteries. Examples are provided throughout this book:
power back up, car accessories, alarms, rescue systems, portable medical
equipment, etc. (Chapters 10-12).
What is the fate of this huge battery production? Will it be a further
contribution to our planet's pollution or may we avoid this and even exploit the
materials of spent batteries? Collection and recycling is now mandatory in many
countries with definite rules, as detailed in Chapter 14.
vi ecaferP
It is now commonplace that we live in a world that would be very
different, and certainly less comfortable, if consumer and industrial batteries
would not exist. We shall take advantage from their use at a growing rate in the
future (Chapter 15). For this reason, gratitude should be expressed to any person,
scientist or technician, who has given through the years a contribution to the
advancements in this field.
Michel Broussely Gianfranco Pistoia
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Vll
Contents
Chapter 1. Nonaqueous Batteries Used in Industrial Applications
G. Pistoia
1.1. Introduction 1
1.2. Primary Lithium Batteries 1
1.2.1. Lithium/Sulfur Dioxide Batteries 2
1.2.1.1. Cell Construction and Performance 3
1.2.2. Lithium/Thionyl Chloride Batteries 5
1.2.2.1. Cell Construction and Performance 6
1.2.3. Lithium/Manganese Dioxide Batteries 10
1.2.3.1. Cell Construction and Performance 11
1.2.4. Lithium/Carbon Monofluoride Batteries 14
1.2.4.1. Materials, Electrode Reactions, Cell Types and Performance 15
1.2.5. Basic Parameters of Primary Li Batteries 17
1.3. Rechargeable Batteries 17
1.3.1. Lithium-Ion Batteries 17
1.3.1.1. Carbons 18
1.3.1.2. Positive Electrodes 21
1.3.1.3. Liquid Electrolytes 22
1.3.1.4. Cell Construction and Performance (with Liquid Electrolytes) 23
1.3.1.5. Li-Ion Batteries with Polymeric Electrolytes 29
1.3.1.6. Examples of Applications 30
1.3.2. Batteries with a Lithium Electrode 32
1.3.2.1. Lithium/Sulfur Batteries 32
1.3.2.2. Li-Metal-Polymer Batteries 32
1.3.2.3. Li-Al/Iron Sulfide Batteries 38
1.3.3. Batteries with a Sodium Electrode 41
1.3.3.1. Sodium/Sulfur Batteries 42
1.3.3.2. Sodium/Nickel Chloride (Zebra) Batteries 46
1.3.4. Basic Parameters of Secondary Nonaqueous Batteries 49
Chapter 2. Aqueous Batteries Used in Industrial Applications
G. Pistoia
2.1. Introduction 53
2.2. Lead/Acid Batteries 53
2.2.1. Electrodes 53
2.2.2. Grids 55
2.2.3. Plate Designs 55
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viii Contents
2.2.4. Electrolyte and Separators 57
2.2.5. Charge/Discharge Reactions 57
2.2.6. Design Features and Applications 59
2.2.7. Discharge Characteristics, Peukert Equation and Self-Discharge 63
2.2.8. Charging Methods 65
2.3. Nickel/Cadmium Batteries 66
2.3.1. Introduction 66
2.3.2. Types of Ni/Cd Batteries 66
2.3.3. Charge/Discharge Reactions 69
2.3.4. Discharge Characteristics, Memory Effect and Self-Discharge 71
2.3.5. Charging Techniques 73
2.3.6. Cycle Life 74
2.3.7. Applications 76
2.4. Nickel/Metal Hydride Batteries 77
2.4.1. Materials and Electrode Reactions 77
2.4.2. Cell Construction and Performance 80
2.4.3. Charging the Ni/MH Battery 83
2.4.4. Cycle and Battery Life 86
2.4.5. Applications 86
2.5. Nickel/Hydrogen Batteries 89
2.6. Nickel/Iron Batteries 91
^ 2.7. Nickel/Zinc Batteries 94
2.8. Zinc/Air Batteries 97
2.9. Silver/Zinc Batteries 101
2.10. Zinc/Bromine Batteries 103
2.11. Vanadium Redox-Flow Batteries 106
2.12. Alkaline Primary Batteries 108
2.12.1. Electrode Materials and Processes 109
2.12.2. Cell Construction 110
2.12.3. Cell Performance and Applications 111
2.13. Basic Parameters of Aqueous Secondary Batteries 114
Chapter 3. Characterization of Batteries by Electrochemical and
Non-Electrochemical Techniques
D. Aurbach
3.1. Introduction 119
3.2. Categories of Battery Materials 120
3.2.1. Electrode Materials 120
3.2.1.1. General Features 120
3.2.1.2. Negative Electrodes 122
3.2.1.3. Positive Electrodes 124
3.2.2. Electrolyte Systems 126
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Contents ix
3.2.2.1. Aqueous Solutions 126
3.2.2.2. Nonaqueous Solutions 126
3.2.2.3. Solid Electrolyte Systems 127
3.2.3. Supporting Elements 127
3.2.3.1. Current Collectors 127
3.2.3.2. Separators and Membranes 128
3.3. Stages and Levels in Battery Characterization 129
3.3.1. Introduction 129
3.3.2. Non-Destructive Studies of Full Cells 129
3.3.3. Post-Mortem Analysis of Full Cells 129
3.3.4. Half Cell Testing 130
3.3.5. Solution Studies 130
3.3.6. Electrode Studies - Bulk 131
3.4. A Brief Summary of Available Techniques Related to the
Characterization of Batteries 132
3.4.1. Glove Box Operations 132
3.4.2. Bulk Analytical Tools 133
3.4.2.1. Basics of Mass Spectrometry 133
3.4.2.2. Mossbauer Spectroscopy 134
3.4.2.3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 135
3.4.2.4. IR, UV-Vis, Raman 136
3.4.2.5. Inductively Coupled Plasma 139
3.4.2.6. Diffraction Techniques (X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction) 140
3.4.2.7. X-Ray Techniques: EXAFS and XANES 141
3.4.3. Microscopy 142
3.4.3.1. Electron Microscopy and Related Techniques 142
3.4.3.2. Atomic Force Microscopy 144
3.4.4. Analysis of Surface Area by Gas Adsorption Processes 146
3.4.5. Thermal Analysis 147
3.4.5.1. DTA, DSC and TGA 147
3.4.5.2. Accelerating Rate Calorimetry 148
3.4.6. Surface Analysis 149
3.4.6.1. General Remarks 149
3.4.6.2. FTIR and Raman Spectroscopies 149
3.4.6.3. XPSandAES 152
3.4.7. Electrochemical Techniques 155
3.4.7.1. Introduction 155
3.4.7.2. Fine Electroanalytical Techniques 155
3.4.8. Some Miscellaneous Techniques 160
3.4.9. In Situ Measurements 162
3.5. Typical Studies of Electrolyte Solutions and Solid Electrolytes 167
3.5.1. Evaluation of Solvents Parameters and Solutions Conductivity 167
3.5.2. Electrochemical Windows of Electrolyte Solutions 169
3.5.3. Thermal Studies 171
3.6. Typical Studies of Electrodes and Electrode Materials 173
3.6.1. The Scheme of Material Research 173