Table Of ContentIndo-Caribbean 'Local-classical Music':
A Unique Variant of Hindustani Music
PETER"ANUEL
A s cosmopolitan South Asians are well aware, several Indian perfonning arts, from
~haratanatyarn to Bhangra, havecome to flourish outside of India. especially as
cultivated by non-resident Indians and Pakistanis. Most of these art forms. like
Bharatanatyam. either adhereclosely to models thriving in India itself, orelse- like the
British-based Bhangra- although differing from counterparts in India, are nevertheless
familiar to interested urbanites in South Asia, who can buy recordings and cultivate an
interest in them ifthey desire. Among the ethnic Indian populations of the Caribbean, a
unique sort of Indian music has come to evolve and flourish. which. although originally
derived fromIndia.hasdevelopedintoadistinctiveart formessentiallyunknowninIndia.
Today, at weddings and other functions in Trinidad, and to some extent in Guyana and
Suriname,onecanhearperformancesofwhatmusiciansrefertoasThurnri,Dhrupad,Tillana,
Ghazal, Bihag, and other forms that are quite different fromtheir namesakes in lndia.In
this article.Iprovideabriefdescriptiveoverviewofthismusic form, illustratinghowNorth
Indian music has taken root and evolved into something quite unique in a land far away
fromAsia Itself",
The Indianpopulation ofthe Caribbean,now numbering about one million,comprises
descendants of indentured workers who migrated to the region between 1845 and 1917.
Indo-CaribbeansconstituteamajorityofthepopulationofGuyanaandarethelargestethnic
groups innearbySurinameandTrinidad.Mostoftheindenturedimmigrants werefrom the
Bhojpuri-speaking regions ofwhat is now Biharand Uttar Pradesh; as a result, Bhojpuri
became a lingua franca among Indo-Caribbeans and remains widely spoken inSuriname,
althoughonlythe veryelderly speakit inGuyanaandTrinidad,where Englishdominates.
Descendants ofthecolonial-eraBhojpuridiaspora,whichalsoextendstoFiji.Mauritius,
and elsewhere, are insome ways distinct from other non-resident Indians. Unlike most
overseas SouthAsians,the Bhojpuricommunitieswere largely cut off from their regional
homeland after indentured emigration ceased in 1917. After that date, Indians in the
CaribbeanwelcomedthesteadytriclJeofrecords,films, andholymencomingfrom India.
but all these largely represented aspects of mainstream Hindi-based North Indian culture
rather than Bhojpuri culture per se.As a resuJt,the expressive art formsbrought by the
immigrantstended toevolve intheirown directions.Inaccordance with the spread ofthe
Englishlanguageandpressurestoacculturatetothenormsofthedominant Afro-Caribbean
society,sometraditional aspectsofIndo-Caribbeanmusicculturedeclinedorcreolized.At
the same time, however,the relative isolation of manyIndo-Caribbean communities, and
the determination 10 perpetuate Indian culture, allowed certain fonns of Indian music to
remain vitaland evolvein nee-traditional forms.
Sangut Nalak Vol. XXXVII. No. r.2002
•
PETER MANUEL
Local-classical Music and Indo-Caribbean Music Culture
Indo-Caribbeanmusicculturecomprisesavarietyofgenres.InonecategoryareBhojpuri
folk songs, including wedding songs,Bhojpuri-style Chowtal(sung during Holi/Pbagwii),
and,inSuriname, an archaicform of Birha. Hindifilm musicisprodigiously popular.and
ischerishedand sung by innumerableamateur crooners who know little Hindi. In thelast
twodecades.acalypso-influencedsyncretic songanddancegenre calledChutney hasalso
burst on the music scene, combining Bhojpuri-style melodieswith local Afro-Trinidadian
rhythms.Atinyhandfuloflndo-CaribbeanshavecultivatedaninterestinHindustani music.
perhaps visiting Indiatostudythe Sitar, or learning songs from Bhatkhande's anthologies
atlocal culturalcentres.Inaclassby itselfis the musicdescribed inthis article,variously
called 'tan-singing', 'tent-singing',or 'local-classicalmusic'.
The origins of local-classical music are obscure. Although most of the indentured
immigrants [Q the Caribbean were illiterate peasants. it seems evident that a few of them
had some exposure to Hindustani music,whether in the fonn of temple Dhrupad-singing.
theThumrisandGhazalsoftawa'ifs.ordilutedformsofclassicalmusicanddancepresented
in Nautankitheatre.Such individuals.ifmotivated and talented.couldbecome knownand
celebrated asperformers inacommunitythat greatlyvalueditsIndianheritageand wanted
toperpetuateIndian culture asmuchas was possible.Singers took special interestin song
anthologies imported by merchants, including books like the Brahmanand Bhajan Mala
(1901), whichstillcirculates in Indiatoday,the Bhajan Ramayan (1870s),and other long
out-of-print books like AnandSagar and AnekSangraha (a Dhrupad collection of 1836,
reprinted in 1914).These books containsong lyrics. with labels indicating genre - e.g..
&111Umri"- and. insome cases,raga andtaladesignation; there is nosargam notation.
Booksofsongandchantlyrics. fromtheVedastotheRamacharitmanas,appeartohave
playedanImportantpart inIndian musicculture foratleast twomillennia,occupying focal
positions in the Interaction of urban and rural, folk and classical, and oral and written
traditions,Thedramaticadventofthevernacularprinting industryinthenineteenthcentury
onlyincreased the influence and spread of such books. In many such collections, suchas
the Gila Govinda, verses bear headings which indicate genre. raga, and/or Hila. These
headingswerepresumablyintended 10 serveasaids10 carriersofcontinuousoraltraditions,
butbecome essentiallymeaninglesswhensuchtraditionsare broken.Hence.amodemfolk
singerrenderingaGitaGovindaverselabeled"rfigaHindol"islikelytoignorethatheading.
Nevertheless, other singers. and especially those like tan-singers who wish 10 maintain
some sense of tradition,often attempt to take the labels seriously. However, mosl of the
songbooks used in the Caribbeanare full of archaisms and oddities,dating from a period
justbefore therelativestandardizationofHindustani music theory in the secondquarterof
the twentiethcentury.Thustheyare fullofnow-extinctorotherwiseunheard-ofragaslike
Banjara, Kasuri,and Rasra, and odd headings like "Raga Ghazal" and "Ghazal-Thumri".
Untrained vocalists may perpetuate such headings without understanding them. One
Trinidadiansinger.forexample.sangatuneformewhichhecaIled"ragaAsavari"because
itborethatlabelinthe Kabirsongbookfrom which hetook it:histune. however.bore no
resemblance10 that raga.
Itappearsthat in theearlydecadesofthe twentieth century. Indo-Caribbean musicians
INDO-CARIBBEAN 'LOCAL-CLASSICAL MUSIC' 5
took the fragmentsof Hindustani music knowledgeavailable to them and combined them
in a manner which subsequently evolved in a thoroughly idiosyncratic fashion. By the
19505this art had developed into a relatively stable and established idiom, with itsown
body oftheory andconventions.anditscombinationofmarginalsurvivals.jumbledbitsof
Hindustani music theory. and thoroughly unique Innovations. Although coming to differ
dramaticallyfromHindustanimusic,local-classicalmusicdidnotincorporateanyparticular
influence from non-Indian sources; rather. itevolved along wholly Indian aesthetic lines,
aIthough in aquitedistinctform.Henceforth,on the rare occasions where Indo-Caribbean
musicians had opportunitiesto hear 'authentic' Hindustani music, they generally found it
alienanddull;and,conversely.onoccasionswherevisitorsfromIndiaheard local-classical
music,theyweregenerallyflabbergastedatwhatwasannouncedtobe"Thumri"."Dhrupad",
andthe like.Ineffect, local-classical music hadevolved intoits own distinctive art form,
withitsown rules. vitality,and legitimacy.
Local-classical musicistypically performed byanensembleof solovocalist. who also
playsharmonium,accompanied byDholakandastruckmetalrodcalledDantal.TheDantal
(dond-tiila?)appears 10 beanobscureBhojpuri-regioninstrumentwhich.forsomereason.
became widespread intheIndicCaribbean.To aNorth Indianear, muchoflocal-classical
music might sound more or less like a solo Qawwali or stage Bhajan - although with
certain structural peculiarities - as rendered by an accomplished group ofprofessional
folkmusicians,andwithaparticularlyanimatedandvirtuosoDholakplayer.Local-classical
vocalists, or lan-singers. are usually semi-professionals who perform at weddings, puja
sessions,andjiigarans(or"jags").Although unable tospeak Hindi.mosthavelearned the
Nagari scriptwell enough to readbooks liketheBralunanand assourcesfor lyrics.
Typicallytoday, tan-singerswillbehiredbythebride'sfatheratawedding,ifhehappens
tobeanenthusiastofthatmusic.Asmall stage withmicrophonesand loudspeakerswill be
setup. and the audience,consisting mostly ofelderly people,will sit in folding chairs to
enjoy the music, while other guests chat and mill about outside. r an-singers commence
aroundtenintheeveningwithan InvccatoryDhrupad,whichisfollowedbyaTillana,and
thenavarietyofothergenres,ofwhichthemostcommonisThumri.Typically,afterafew
hours, the younger guests start clamouring for Chutney. at which point the ensemble
begrudgingly obliges, and a vigorous and often ribald social dancing takes over, and a
general moodofhilarityandfunprevailsuntil the wee hours.
The term "tan-singing' is typical ofthe sorts ofprocesses bywhichthis local classical
musicevolved.In tin-singing,oddly enough. thesingersdo not singany tiins, but instead
render songs ina morestraightforward fashion.Moreover, tan-singersare unfamiliarwith
theHindustanimeaningoftheword'tan'. However.theyarefamiliarwiththenameTansen,
andagenerationagoitwascommontorefer10askilledvocalistasa"Tansen".Inaccordance
with the more common Kshatriya surname, 'Tansen' was corrupted to "Tan Singh', and
thence to 'tan-singer', affording the term "tan-singing'.Other music terms used by Indo
Caribbcansare similarly idiosyncratic.Like many folk musiciansin India. tan-singers use
theterm "raga' tomean melodyor tune,ratherthan mode. 'Tala' designatesnotmetre, but
tihiii,simpleversionsofwhichare playedbydrummers.Althoughmanysongsarerendered
inametre whichHindustani musicianswouldcallKaherva,thatnameislargelyunknown;
6 PETER MANUEL
instead, therhythm iscalled"Chaubola",ifanameisusedatall.Sargarn islargelyunknown,
and drummers are unable to specify how many miitras are in the metres they play. Thus
there isnoname for theseven-beattala used in song-typeslikeBihagand Dandak,norisit
understood as having seven beats. Standardized terms, however, are used for sections of
songs.
Mostsongshave astructure r'dhab",ormould) akintothatofthebol-bandoThumri,in
which afewverses (padas) are sung, with some elaboration,afterwhich the song seguesto
anextendedlaggi section, over which thefirst line ofthe song (the "tek") isreiteratedand
varied while the drummerplays flashy virtuoso improvisations. After a short return to the
original tempo (the "thekii"), the song concludes. The laggi section is referredto as daur,
chalti, orbarti (perhaps from 'barhna', to develop, grow). In general, the terminology is
perhaps more systematicand extensivethan what would beused byatypical North Indian
folkmusician, althoughless sothanby a'classicalperformer.The degreeof terminological
laxitydoesnot,however,implyahaphazardandindifferentattitudetomusical performance,
asmusicians arequick tocriticize performerswhoincorrectlyrendersong-types,with their
intricate rhythmic modulations and conventions.
Somedistinctionsexist betweenthe variantsoflocal-classicalmusic heard inTrinidad,
Guyana, andSuriname.InSuriname,whereHindiandBhojpuriarespokenbymost Indians,
songlyricsareaccordinglymore important, andformal distinctionsbetweengenresless so;
Surinameselocal-classicalmusic thus has abit more of the flavour of aliving folk music.
The Guyanese andTrinidadianstyles are more formalized, withcleardistinctionsbetween
genres.Although theGuyanesestyleispractisedonlybyahandful ofmusicians,Trinidadian
local-classicalmusic isstillperformedfrequently; itsvitality, however,isweakenedbythe
decline of Hindi/Bhojpuri comprehension and otherfactors.
One ofthefeatures distinguishinglocal-classicalmusic from atypicalfolk repertoireis
therecognitionofavariety ofsong-typesor subgenres which are distinguished from each
other by formal musical features. These song-types have diverse sorts of relationships to
their namesakes in North India, as the following briefdescriptions suggest.
Dhrupad
Any formal performance of local-classical music commences with a Dhrupad, which
functions as a sort of invocatory prelude. On first hearing, an Indo-Caribbean Dhrupad
wouldseemtobear littleresemblancetoitsclassicalHindustaninamesake,as theformeris
ashort songofaroundthree orfour minutes,precededonlybyafew iiliip-likephrasesand
adohii, andwith very little developmentof raga or tala. The compositionitselfissung not
tothe Dhrupadtalas used inIndia, but to ametre which could be countedin eitherfour or
eightbeats (and which is less bouncy and syncopated than Kaherva/Chaubola). However,
even inNorth India, Dhrupad is best understood as comprising a family of genres, which
wouldinclude congregationalSamaj-gayan,PushtimargHaveli Sangeet,andothertemple
based relatives. These tend to share certain musical and textual features which are also
commontoIndo-CaribbeanDhrupad, which thusshouldbeunderstoodasabonafidemember
ofthe Dhrupadfamily.
Ir\'DO-CARIBBEAN 'LOCAL-CLASSICAL MUSIC' 7
AmongtheaffinitieswithHindustaniDhrupadarethetextsforIndo-CaribbeanDhrupads,
which adhere to thestandard four-line form of theirHindustani counterparts, since they
derive from Dhrupads in song anthologies like Anek Sangraha. Further. Indo-Caribbean
local-classicalDhrupad,likeitsHindustaninamesake,isregarded asaseriousandstately
genre, whose devotional, invocatory charactercoheres withthe religious inspiration
foregroundedinNorthIndiantempleDhrupadtraditions.Moresignificantisthestructural
resemblanceofrenditionstyles.InmanyCaribbeanrenderings.moreorlessasinHindustani
Dhrupad, thecomposition is firstsungin astraightforward manner,inarelatively slow
tempo.Withthereturntothesthdyi,thebartildaurcommencesandaccelerates,andthetext
isagainrenderedonce,butinafaster,syllabicstyle.Althoughthereisnoparticularlayakiiri
or bot-bent, the basic format ofHindustani Dhrupad and Havel!Sangeet - a slow first
rendering, followed by oneormorefaster, moresyllabic and rhythmic renderings- is
oftenretained.Further.inbothCaribbeanandHindustaniDhrupad,thedrummerimprovises
fastpatterns inthe second,acceleratedsection.ThebrevityoftheIndo-Caribbeanmapis
alsoafeaturenotonlyoftemple-basedDhrupad,butalsoofthecourttraditionofDarbhanga
inBihar.The useofthe Dantal in local-classical music also corresponds totheroleofthe
Jhanjh in temple Dhrupad.
The mostpopularIndo-CaribbeanDhrupadtextis 'Prathammanonkar', which isalso
familiarinIndia.IntheDagarfamilytraditionofNorthIndia.itissunginragaBihag. while
DarbhangamusicianssingitinragaAhirBhairav",whosescaleisnotfoundintheCaribbean.
IntheCaribbean.thistextismostoftensunginamodelooselyresemblingtheNorth Indian
ragaBihag(seeExampleI.p.15).althoughthatragaperseisnotrecognizedintheCaribbean.
Itseemsquitelikely that the melodycamefrom Indian oral tradition.
TherootsofIndo-CaribbeanDhrupadmayliebothintemple-andcourt-basedtraditions.
especially sincebothappeartohaveexistedinBiharandeasternUttarPradesh.Theprincely
courtofDarbhanga innorthern BiharwasanimportantcentreofDhrupadpatronage,and
varietiesoftemple-basedDhrupadtraditionshave flourishedinAyodhya,Banaras. Kanpur,
and elsewhereinthe region. Finally, of course, asingle influential immigrant musician
fromany North Indian regioncould well have initiated the Caribbean Dhrupadtradition.
TiI/{ma
Tilliin. is one ofthe more enigmatic Indo-Caribbean genres. differing quite markedly
fromitsSouthIndiannamesake.Asreadersof thisjournalknow,'til/anii' isthecommon
SouthIndiancognatetermfor'tariinif.TheIndo-Caribbeanuseoftheterm'tillana' instead
of the morefamiliarHindustani'tarana' is not initselfmarkedly anomalous. The word
'tariina'isoccasionallyusedbytan-singers,and. likewise,theterm'tillana' isrecognized
inNorthIndia.Evenclassicaltreatisesliketheseventeenth-centuryTohfat-ulHindidentify
thetermsasequivalent.MoreconspicuousisthedistinctionthattheIndo-CaribbeanTillana
employs a lexical Hindi text. in which typicalTariin' syllables t'dim-tanana', etc.), if
appearingatail,occuronlybriefly.Myinitialassumptiononencounteringthisvariantwas
that it represented yet another Indo-Caribbean idiosyncracy- or, less charitably, a
'corruption' - of anotherwise standardizedand well-documentedHindustanitradition.
However,TillanaswithHinditextsinfacttumouttoconstituteanestablishedNorthIndian.
8 PETERMANUEL
tradition.albeitanobscure one,representedintheappearanceofahandfulofsuchsongsin
tum-of-the-century anthologies like the Anand Sagar.
TheTillanas in such anthologies are somewhat enigmatic in themselves.Itis possible
that they may have existed as dance pieces in music-dramas like the Indar Sabha, and
Nautanki ingeneral.Thus.onetatteredanthologyshowntomecontainedasongtextlabelled
_(in Nagari) "Tariiniinatal kat! shohar" (sic - presumably "qatl-e shohar', i.e., 'Tarana
from thedrama Qat/-eShohar', 'The Murder ofthe Husband'). In 'intermediary' idioms
likeNautanki andRasJila.,whichcombinedfolk-derivedandsemi-classicalstyles.itisquite
conceivable that dance items mighthave been performedto pieces labelled tillanaltarana.
Tarana.
whichperhapsborethatlabel becauseoftheuseofmelodiesderived fromclassical
Performersofrelativelyword-orientedgenresof'intermediate"dance-dramaandfolkmusics
wouldhavehadlittleuseforclassical Tillanas,withtheirmeaninglesstexts, butcouldhave
employedhybridTillanasusingfeaturesoftheclassicalIdiom.ftispreciselysuchTilliinas,
i.e., with lexical texts. that would beincluded in song anthologies, rather than standard
Tilljinilswhosetextsconsistsolelyofmeaninglesssyllables.And,infact,theTilldniisfound
in anthologies are very few in number, suggesting that this tradition - now effectively
extinct in India- was not widespread to begin with. Accordingly, there areonly asmall
numberofTillana texts that recur in local-classical music. Most ofthese follow a certain
format, whichevidently constituted somethingofa nanninIndia. Theygenerallyconcern
Indian musicology (like some Dhrupads); in the manner ofthe obscure Chaturang, they
include passages of sargam and non-lexical syllables ('tananana', etc.), such as would
generally dominate classical Taranf texts.These features are evident in 'Bhaliikoi rang
yuktisegave'. which is the most popular local-classical Tillana text, and is found in the
AnandSagar:
Rho/akoirangyuktisegave,
samagamamamagama sudJuisudhiirang
tum lanananamanbhave.
pratham raga Bhairoke drutiya Malkos Bhairavi
Nat ToriourSiiranggave,SorathourVibhosJhanjhoti
KiinhraAlhaiya DipakDhiina Desh Kedar Proj Sohini sundve
ghazairekhtattiinagal'elum lonananoman bhiwe
apneman segun;kahiiye,tansurkabhednopuye
kahe Jfian TiinsensunhuBraj Baura
koichhatrapati10tanSltlla\'e
The marginality of such Tillanas to modern Hindustani music practice is reflected not
onlyinthe presenceoflexical texts,butalso in odditiesin thetextsthemselves.•Bhalii koi
rang',asidefrom citing the archaic raga NatTodi,ambiguously mentions "trona" (sic
tarana),"BrajBaura"(sic- BaijuBawra),and ragas"Dbana"and"Praj' (sic- Dhiiniand
Paraj?). \Vhile the most popular Tillana texts resemble this one, tan-singers can and do
employanytext forrenderingasaTillana.A typical local-classical musicsession,suchas
a wedding,mightinclude three singers,eachofwhom isobliged to sing oneTillana,Ifthe
first Iwo vocalists have sung theone ortwo familiar texts like 'Bha/a kol rang', then the
INDO·CARIBBEAN ·LOCAL·CLASSICALMUSIC' 9
thirdsingermustnaturallyhaveanotheroneready.whichcanbetakenfromabooklikethe
Brahmanandand settothestandardIndo-CaribbeanTillanf melody.
Although the Indo-Caribbean Tilliinamay come 10 resemble a Bhajan more thanthe
Hindustani Tarana, it retains a certain aura of classical rigour, and is accordingly sung
immediately after the invocational Dhrupad. (Ifmore than one singer is present - for
example,atawedding- eachwillsingaDhrupadandaTillanjibeforepassingthemiketo
thenextvocalist.)The'classical' natureofthisTilliinjiismanifestinitsspecificaffinitiesto
Hindustani music. One of its 'classical"features is the distinctive Tillaoaaccompanying
rhythm. which sounds somewhat like a medium-tempo Tintal pattern without any khlili
section.GiventhelackofexposuretomodemHindustanimusic,andthepossibilitythatme
modernformofTintalthekadidnotcrystallizeuntilthelatenineteenthcentury,itwouldin
factbesurprisingtoencounter in local-classical music apattern morecloselyresembling
standardNorth IndianTintal,
Tillana melodies also reflect markedparallels to Hindustanimusic. InTrinidad, most
Tlllanasusethetek melodyshowninExample2(p. 15).Thistunecloselyresemblesthe
most common medium- or fast-tempo vocal or instrumental composition pattern in the
familiar Hindustani raga Kill. It was a particularly popular stock tune in the nineteenth
century. Bandish Thumri composer Lallan Piya (d. 1925). a few of whose verses are
encounteredintheCaribbean,setatleasttwelvetextstothismelody,whichalsobecamea
popularSitargat':ThemostcommonmelodyofKaf Han canalsobeseenasaseven-or
fourteen-beatvariantof thistune;this HoriJHolimelodyissungnotonlyinsemi-classical
music,butin"intermediate' genresliketheBraj-regionRaslilaandtempleSamaj-gayan.In
Nonh India,duringtheindentureshipperiod,thiswasprobablythesinglemostpopularand
familiarof classical and light-classical melodies,andit is entirelylikely thatit wouldbe
knownto more than a few indentured immigrants. Somehowit cametobeassociatedin
Trinidad withTillanatexts,
In conjunction with this tek melody in local-classical music, the most commontune
usedforthepadascanberegardedasfollowingaverytypicalantariipatternofHindustani
medium-andfast-tempocompositions.Inparticular.asillustratedinExample3(p.16).its
commencementroughlyresemblesstandardantarapatternsinragaslikeJaunpuri,Asavari,
Bhairavi,andDarbari,Usedtogetherwiththetektune,thispatterngivesTillanathecharacter
ofaverytypicalmadhya-laya Hindustanicheez.looselycompatiblewiththeNorthIndian
ragaKill andtheotherragasnamedabove.althoughnotcoheringperfectlytoanyofthem.
Typically,eachlinemightbesungafewtimeswithsomevariation,andinterspersedwith
briefmelisrnaticpassages.Notethaiinsingingthesargarnlinet'soregama...'),thevocalist
inExample3makesnoattempttomatchhispitchestothosenamed.
Othermelodiesarealsoencountered.Thetext'Bha/iikoirang',forinstance,isusually
sungasshowninExample4(p.16),inwhatHindustanimusiciansmightregardasatypical
medium-tempocompositioninragaKhamaj,
Indo-Caribbean Tillana can be seen to exhibit some of the idiosyncratic results of
elaboration and combination of a few specific elements derivedfrom oral tradition
especially,thestockHindustaniKafiandantaratunes-andfromwrittentexis.inparticular,
theobscure,marginal,andnowextincttraditionofTillandswithHindilyrics.
10 PETER MANUEL
Thumri
ThumriisthesinglemostpopularandimportantsubgenreofTrinidadianandGuyanese
local-classicalmusic.Atatypicalsongsession(e.g.,awedding)inthesecountries,oncethe
obligatory Dhrupad and Tillana have been dispensedwith, most ofthe subsequent pieces
consistofThumris,interspersedwithGhazals,Bhajans,andothermiscellaneousitems.As
such,Thumrismaybesaidtoconstitutealmosthalfofthelocal-classicalmusicrepertoire.
both in live performances as well as on recordings. Moreover, Thumri's particularly
idiosyncratic and distinctive fonn makes itquintessentially representative of the sons of
transformativeandgenerativeprocesseswhichhaveanimatedtheevolutionoflocal-classical
music.Understandingthe evolutionofThumri,inmany respects, wouldprovide akeyto
reconstructing local-classical music history in general. Unfortunately, much of its
developmentremainsobscure,althoughanalysiscanrevealcertaininsights.
The modemNorthIndianThunui,althoughstylisticallyandtechnically'semi-classical',
restsfullyinthesocialmilieuofHindustaniclassicalmusic.Despitethedemocratizationof
certain aspecls ofNorth Indianarts culture,Thunui inIndiaislittle heardoutside ofurban
concerthallsattendedbybourgeoisarts patrons.However,duringthe periodofindentured
emigrationtotheCaribbean,Thumri- whetherinsimpleorevolvedform- mayhave
enjoyedasomewhatbroader-baseddissemination.Ingeographicalterms,fineartspatronage
wasnotlimited,asitis today, 10largecities (especiallyDelhi,Bomhay,and Calcutta), bUI
extendedtomanysmallerregionaltownslikeGayaandDarhhangawhichhostedprovincial
courts.Further, courtesanperformers,withtheirinherently ambiguous socialstatus,were
able todisseminate 'light-classical' Thumri and Ghazal beyondthe rarefieddomain ofthe
court. Thumri thusfounditswayinto 'intermediate'idiomsliketheNautanki andRaslila
dance-dramas.We mayalso recall Sharar's observation of "bazaar boys"in nineteenth
centuryLucknowsinginglight-classicalpieces".There isthuseveryreasontoassumethat
a few immigrants to the Caribbean might have had some exposure 10 and perhaps even
basictraininginsomestyleofTbumri,However,there isnoevidencethatsubsequenttan·
singers hadany exposure 10 theHindustaniThumri, whetherviaimported recordings or
visitingartists.Thus,oncetheinitialseedsofThumriweretransplanted,thegenrewasfree,
indeed obliged, todevelopin itsown wholly idiosyncraticform.
Such conditions would explain the thoroughly distinctive form the Indo-Caribbean
Thumrihastaken.Themodemlocal-classicalThunuibearsonlygeneralstructuralaffinities
with its North Indian namesake. Specifically, the Caribbean Thunui, like the modem
HindustaniThumri, commences withatcklsthayi, which subsequentlypunctuates more
extendedrenderingsofafewlinesofverse, whichmaylaketheformofanantara aseending
to theuppertonic.Afterafew minutes. thesingeruses areturn to thetek to signalthe
drummer 10 commence the daurlbartillaggi section,during which the drummer plays fast
virtuosopanerns whilethesingerreiterates thetek and/orverses,ofteninamoresyllabic
manner.Thereisthenashortreturntothetekinsomethingliketheoriginaltempo.andthe
piece ends.
Inotherrespects, however, theIndo-Caribbean Thumri is quitedistinctive. It hasno
particularassociation withdance oreroticism. and its texts aremore likely 10celebrate
Rama than Krishna. perhaps in accordance with the special emphasis on Rama worshipin
INDO-CARIBBEAN 'LOCAL-CLASSICALMUSIC' 11
Bhojpuriculture.Local-classicalThumri isalsodistinctiveinitsformalfeatures.Insteadof
the folk-derived fourteen- or sixteen-beat Dipchandi/Chiinchar metre, Indo-Caribbean
Thumriuseswhatcouldbeconsideredafour-oreight-beattala.hnproviscdpassagesroughly
akintobel-bamandbol-banaooccasionallyoccur,butthereislittleself-consciouscultivation
of these techniques,andthese termsarenotknownintheCaribbean.Mostconspicuousis
thewayIndo-CaribbeanThumrihasacquireditsownsetoftypicalmelodies,rhythms,and
sub-styles; these are particularly marked in theTrinidadian Thumri, withitsrigorously
standardizedformal structure.Onthe whole,itseemslikelythatasimple andearlyformof
bol-banaoThumri wasintroducedbyafewimmigrantsintheearlydecadesofthetwentieth
century.Lackingstrongrootsineitheroralfolktraditionortemple-basedmusicpractices.
and not being reinforced by imported records (unlike Ghazal and Qawwiili), the Indo
CaribbeanThumri subsequently developed initsowndistinctiveforms.possiblyas shaped
inparticularbyaveryfewinfluentialmusicians.
The formalstructure of theTrinidadian Thumri is highly standardized, including not
onlythegeneralformatbutalsotheplacementofspecifictala/tihaicadences.Thisstructure
can be schematized as follows:
Doha(sung infree rhythm);
tek renderings (with thekaaccompaniment),leading toa taJaltihiii;
firstpada, usuallyinvolvingametricaldisplacement;
returnto tek andtheka, leadingtoa taJaltihiii;
second pada, rendered like the first;
return totekandtheka, leadingtoataJaltihiii;
daur/barti,during which the tek, and the first,second.and possibly
a thirdpadamay.besung;
returnto tekand theka, leading to the finaltiilaltihiii.
Most TrinidadianThumrirefrainmelodies use a finite setofstock tunes. orslight
variationsthereof.These typicallydescendto sa,andincorporate asyncopatedtihai-like
figure in the rnukhra which leads to the sam (inExample 5, p. 16, in the phrase 'Ramko
bha-jo').ThetekmelodyofExample5isthemostcommonstockrefraintune;anyThumri
usingthistuneisreferredtoasa"BhajanThurnri".ThistennisnotusedinmodemHindustani
musicdiscourse.althoughitdoesoccurinoldsonganthologies,
The 'metricaldisplacement' referredto inthechartaboveisaparticularly distinctive
featureoftheTrinidadianThumri,andmustbeheardtobeappreciated.FromaHindustani
perspective,itsoundsasif thesongisessentially inKaherva, butatthe beginningofthe
first pada the Dholak player renders a short tihiiilanding notonthe sam, buton the beat
after the sam.and the entire tiil.. with its pattern ofdownbeats and upbeats,shifts back a
beat.Thesingerthenfollowsthisnewpauerninhisphrasingofthepadauntilreturningto
thesthayi/tekpattern, withitstihai-like mukhra;this.however,herendersabeattoosoon,
as itwere,suchthatthetalashiftsagain,ineffectremovingtheextrabeatthathadbeen
addedaminuteorsoearlier.Asoneaccustomedtothemetricalregularityofmostmusics,
Ifound thisrhythmicmodulationto bequitemind-bogglingand disorienting.Myattempts
tounderstanditwereconfoundedbythefactthat Indo-Caribbean musiciansdonotcount
beats and could not acknowledge that anything peculiar was taking place. (Eventually I
PETERMANUEL
12
foundone drummer who said, "Yeah,itshifts.and then itshifts back.") In the Guyanese
Thumri style,thesense ofmetreisevenmore slipperyand unstable, asthe singer cancause
a metrical shift at anypointby singingthe tek/sthayi,withits clear cadential pattern.such
that the samoccurs on anybeat;the drummer and the Dantal player- and listeners who
are tappingtheirfeet- mustquicklyadjustto thenew pattern.Theentiresongisrendered
insuchasyncopatedmanner,withtheDholakprovidingnon-stopfireworks.thattheconcept
ofsam or downbeat is relatively unimportant. In effect, in their Thumri, Indo-Caribbean
musicianshaveperpetuatedtheIndianfondnessforlinearsyncopation.whileleavingbehind
inIndia theconceptofastrongsamordownbeat.
SomeTrinidadian Thumrisdonot containthese distinctive metrical modulations;these
arereferredtoas"MarfatThumri"- aleonwhichisyetanotherenigmaticandidiosyncratic
Indo-Caribbeanism.The word 'ma'rifat' (Urdu: mystical knowledge) does not occur in
Hindustanimusicdiscourse.burafewTrinidadiansingersinsisted tome thattheyhadseen
designations like 'marfat ghazal' in old songbooks. We can envision an influential
Trinidadiansingerinperhapsthe 1920spopularizing asong whichhe describesas "marfal
ghazal". in accordance with its designation in his songbook. The melody to this song,
subsequently understood by other singers as 'miirfat', then becomes detached from the
Ghazalformat and gets appliedtoThumri.Somehow,the term thencomesto beapplied to
afewotherThurnri melodies, and more specifically to acertain rhythmic format.
Ghazal
Ghazal isone ofthemostpopular and common subgenresinthe Indo-Caribbean loca1
classicalrepertoire,accountingforalargeportionofatypicalsongsession'sitems,andone
being well represented on commercial recordings. In most respects, the Indo-Caribbean
Ghazal resembles its subcontinental counterpart, especially as flourishing in the early
twentiethcentury.Atthesametime,itsdifferencesareillustrativeofthedistinctiveformative
processes that have shaped local-classical musicasa whole.
Like Thumri,the light-classical Ghazalacquired a special popularity in urban Awadh
(especially Lucknow) inthe mid-1800s. particularly as performed by courtesans. regional
Nautankitroupes,andothers.As such.althoughGhazal (bothas poetryand song)hasbeen
primarilyanurbancultivatedforrnratherthanaruralfolkone.itissafetoassumethatquite
afew indenturedimmigrantswerenoronly familiarwith itbutwereableto sing itinsome
fashion.
Ghazal's popularity in the Caribbean was greatly reinforced in the 19305 and '405 by
the importation of commercial78-rpm records from India.most ofwhich consisted either
ofGhazalorQawwali,Especiallypopular were theGhazalsofK.L.Saigal. K.C. Dey, and
other Indian vocalists who sang in a somewhat simplified light-elassical style.Some tan
singersstillperformtheGhazalsofthesecrooners,Evenmorecommonhasbeenthepractice
ofselling book-derived Ghazal texts to Saigal and K.C. Dey melodies. which have thus
acquired the character ofstock tunes.Since hardly any Indo-Caribbeans read Urdu, they
derivetheirGhazaltextsfromversesthuslabelledinHindianthologiesliketheBrahmanand.
The Hindi 'Ghazals' inthesebooks arecuriosities in themselves. with theirHindi diction,
their Hindu devotional content,and theirfrequent lack ofeither thedistinctive verse form
