Table Of ContentINDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
IN MOVEMENT
INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
IN MOVEMENT
Editor
BRUCE D. KIRKCALDY
~ MTP PRESS LIMITED"
~ a member of the KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS GROUP
.. LANCASTER / BOSTON / THE HAGUE / DORDRECHT
Published in the UK and Europe by
MTP Press Limited
Falcon House
Lancaster, England
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Individual differences in movement.
1. Human mechanics 2. Man - Attitude and
movement
I. Kirkcaldy, Bruce D.
612' .76 QP301
ISBN 0-85200-896-1
Published in the USA by
MTP Press
A division of Kluwer Boston Inc
190 Old Derby Street
Hingham, MA 02043, USA
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Individual differences in movement
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Movement, Psychology of 2. Individuality.
3. Difference (Psychology) 4. Personality.
5. Psychology, Physiological. I. Kirkcaldy, Bruce D.
(Bruce David), 1952-
BF295.I52 1985 152.3 85-18098
ISBN-13: 978-94-010-8676-9 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-4912-6
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-4912-6
Copyright © 1985 MTP Press Limited
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1985
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission from the publishers.
Typesetting by Blackpool Typesetting Services Ltd., Blackpool.
Contents
Introduction vii
List of Contributors xiii
SECTION 1 EXPERIMENTAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL
STUDIES
1. Individual Differences in Voluntary Movement
Martin R. Sheridan 3
2. Personality Theory and Movement
John Brebner 27
3. Perceiving People through their Movements
Sverker Runeson 43
4. Reminiscence as a Factor in the Learning of Skilled Movements
Hans J. Eysenck 67
5. Anxiety, Stress and Performance
Peter Glanzmann 89
SECTION 2 PHYSIOLOGICAL AND CLINICAL STUDIES
6. Mental Chronometry - I. Behavioural and Physiological
Techniques
Kenneth B. Campbell 117
7. Mental Chronometry - II. Individual Differences
Kenneth B. Campbell and Nancy Noldy-Cullum 147
v
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MOVEMENT
8. Neurophysiology of Emotions and some general Brain
Mechanisms
Natalia P. Bechtereva and Diliara K. Kambarova 169
9. Personality and Motor Activity: A Psychophysiological
Perspective
Robert M. Stelmack 193
10. The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Mood
Patricia J. Castell and James A. Blumenthal 215
SECTION 3 SOCIAL AND APPLIED STUDIES
11. Individual Differences in Non-verbal Communication
Peter E. Bull 231
12. Movement and the Personal Style
James J. Conley 247
13. The Values of Traits in Sport
Bruce D. Kirkcaldy 257
14. Personality and Recreational Behaviour
David K. B. Mas 279
15. Sex Differences in Play
Marsha B. Liss 293
Index 303
vi
Introduction
This book is an attempt to bridge the gap between differential psychology and
human movement. It is curious that each discipline has received considerable
attention in its own right but little effort has been made to cross-fertilize them.
Some experimentalists view this union as the equivalent of committing academic
adultery; they have tended to concentrate on general theories and models of
motor control and movement, viewing individual differences as awkward and
best assigned to the error variance component of an analysis. By neglecting
person variables, valuable information is discarded: people do differ in terms
of ability, attitude, motivation and temperament and it is hardly surprising that
such differences interact with a variety of experimental and situational para
digms. The causes and determinants of individual differences must be examined
at an interdisciplinary level, incorporating studies from experimental, physio
logical, clinical and educational psychology. This synthesis could not have been
actualized by any single contributor. For this reason, a multi-authored
approach has been adopted, in which 17 specialists have been assembled to
present the current position of individual difference research in their respective
disciplines.
The authors were granted maximum freedom in their selection and present
ation of material. What emerges is, hopefully, a novel and informative col
lection of articles addressed to a wide audience and providing an impulse for
further research. The plurifacultative approach combined with an appropriate
level of communication should assure its appeal amongst students, practitioners
and researchers in clinical and educational psychology, as well as psychiatrists,
counsellors and physical educators.
The book is organized more or less into three sections covering various
aspects of the spectrum of human movement ranging from an examination of
primarily laboratory-oriented studies (experimental and developmental)
involving behavioural measures of motor skills and performance, to the more
macroscopic events (social and applied studies) including non-verbal com
munication, expressive styles, sport and playful behaviour. An intermediate
section is devoted to the neurophysiological bases underlying such behavioural
variation.
VB
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MOVEMENT
The opening chapter on individual differences in voluntary movement
(Sheridan) considers, as its central theme, sources of variation in skill and ability
underlying individual differences in motor performance, and a distinction is
made between the kinematics or form of a movement, and the outcome of a
movement. Attention is also given to consistencies in motor behaviour, since
these can illustrate the constraints operating on human motor behaviour at a
number of different levels. Intra- and interindividual movement variation are
discussed at a number of levels, and it is argued that there are individual
differences in initial potential, in practice and in experience, which at one level
affect movement production, and at another level affect action, by influencing
the knowledge that the organism has about itself and its world.
In Chapter 2, a novel amalgamated theory of extraversion is presented
drawing on theories from Pavlov and Eysenck. Eysenck's theoretical stand
point (reactive inhibition and arousal theory) is examined at different stages of
development. Brebner suggests that central mechanisms can either be in a state
of excitation or inhibition, dependent on the demands imposed by stimulus
analysis or response-organization (both S-analysis and R-organization occur
prior to the execution of the response). Extraverts ought to make frequent and
faster motor responses than introverts due to their ability to generate excitation
from R-organization and inhibition from S-analysis. Introverts should prefer
a strategy in which excitation is derived from frequent stimulus analysis and the
feedback stimulation from discrete responses. Brebner attempts a selective
review of currect literature on movement and personality to gain empirical
support for this revitalized model of extraversion.
Runeson's contribution presents a recently developed principle -
Kinematic Specification of Dynamics (KSD) - based on concepts from
physics, biomechanics, robotics and recent advances in motor control theory.
The principle asserts that the kinematic pattern of a person in action is, by
necessity, specific to the movement relevant properties of the person. These
properties include, for example, anatomical proportions, intentions and
expectations. It could also be extended to psychological states and properties
such as emotions and personality when these are construed as transient and
stable conditions of readiness of the motor system. He goes on to review studies
exploring the consequences of the KSD principle for visual perception of
persons and action. In particular, the review considers studies of gender and
identity perception from displays of human kinematic patterns as published by
Cutting and colleagues as well as Runeson and Frykholm. Emphasis is laid on
the possibility of faking one's movements so as to give observers false
impressions of oneself or what one is doing. The discussion concludes by stres
sing the richness of unfakeable information about person and action available
in human movements, their role in social interaction and consequences in social
psychology.
Eysenck's contribution on the role of reminiscence in the acquisition of
skilled movements focuses on theories studied within the laboratory context (a
microscopic analysis). The phenomenon of reminiscence is described - the
observation that performance tends to improve after a period of rest - an
event which is easily characterized but is difficult to define adequately. The two
major theories of reminiscence are examined (inhibition and consolidation);
viii
INTRODUCTION
particular attention is given to Ammon's concept of inhibition theory which has
been supported by large scale experimental studies, as well as to Kimble's two
factor theory of inhibition (in which drive serves as a motivational basis for
habit development). Eysenck offers an array of empirical studies primarily
involving the pursuit rotor task in which the effects of motivation and person
ality variables on reminiscence are considered. The chapter culminates in the
presentation of the Eysenck and Frith revised version of consolidation theory
which, in addition to taking account of previous criticisms, is open to empirical
testing. Reminiscence emerges as a very important factor in the acquisition of
motor skills, both practically and even more theoretically.
Glanzmann examines the theories and empirical evidence concerning the
relationship between trait anxiety, state anxiety and performance in different
stress situations on the basis of drive theoretical concepts. In addition to out
lining basic drive theory constructs, the trait-state distinction of anxiety and
problems related to the assessment of state anxiety by means of self-reports
are considered, as well as examination of the worry-emotionality distinction
and the issues of generality of anxiety traits. Revisions of drive theory are
suggested pertaining to the effects of task difficulty on learning performance,
the integration of coping behaviour in the drive theory model and the
anxiety-performance relationship in ego threatening and pain threatening
situations. He concludes with a brief overview of current theory and research
on anxiety.
Campbell's first chapter provides a review of the various methods used in
the measurement of the timing and duration of information processing activities
(mental chronometry). He expresses scepticism of the reliance occasionally
placed on using the behavioural index, mean or median reaction time, since it
is laden with methodological problems. An assumption of serial model inform
ation processing is that the reaction process entails a linear sequence of discrete
stages. Group differences in mean reaction time are therefore difficult to
interpret because they can arise for a variety of reasons. Reaction time is also
susceptible to an individual's bias towards speed or accuracy in responding
strategy. Campbell describes the advantages of using a physiological measure,
the average evoked potential, which can be divided into components in much
the same manner as the information processing stages of behavioural studies.
The late positive wave, P300, seems to be primarily affected by stimulus
evaluation processes, whereas reaction time involves stimulus evaluation and
response production. The difference between P3 and reaction time latency may
thus serve as an indication of the contribution of response bias to the overall
reaction time.
The second chapter by Campbell, co-authored with Noldy-Cullum, is
devoted to studies on group differences in the 'speed of decision-making'. Five
typical areas reflecting individual differences in reaction time have been
sampled in this review: (1) intelligence, (2) extraversion, (3) hyperactivity,
(4) brain trauma and (5) ageing. The possibility that individual differences in
response bias could influence group differences is discussed. In many cases,
group differences in mean reaction time are impossible to interpret. Alternative
methods of analysis that employ a sophisticated trial-by-trial analysis of reac
tion time, taking error into consideration, are recommended. Examples of how
ix
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MOVEMENT
the use of the latency of the P3 component can dramatically alter interpretation
of group reaction time differences are also provided since it (P3) is determined
by processes leading to stimulus evaluation and is relatively independent of
response bias. By combining both reaction time and P3 latencies, it can be
demonstrated that at least in some cases, group differences in mean reaction
time may be due to variation in response bias and not to processes leading to
stimulus evaluation.
Bechtereva and Kambarova describe details of studies performed at the
Soviet Academy of Sciences in Leningrad using long-term intracerebral elec
trode implantation for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in neurological
patients. By directly registering neurophysiological dynamics of brain states,
valuable information is gained concerning the interrelationship between
anatomical structure and function. This is achieved by a combination of local
electro stimulative techniques together with infra-slow physiological processes
(ISPP). Such psychophysiological correlates of behaviour enabled the identifi
cation of spatial cerebral patterns related to normal and pathological emotional
states. A central area of investigation was the dynamic character of rearrange
ment of brain processes during emotional responses (evoked and spontaneous)
and movement processes, including speech-motor behaviour.
Stelmack's paper examines individual differences in motor behaviour from
a psychophysiological perspective. He commences with a review of studies
relating personality factors (focusing on Eysenck's concept of extraversion for
ease of exposition) with responsivity to sensory stimulation. He proceeds to
examine the relationship between the personality variables, extraversion and
anxiety, and the physiological measure, contingent negative variation (an
electro cortical measure assumed to assess motor preparedness). In addition, the
differential effects of cortically excitatory and inhibitory drugs such as chlor
diazepoxide, caffeine, nicotine and cannabis are considered. Cardiovascular
activity, which together with electrocortical activity is functionally related to
motor activity, is examined in relation to the dimensions of type A, sensation
seeking and extraversion (personality dimensions with common descriptive
characteristics). Furthermore, the differential effects of incentives and rewards
on heart rate in various personality groups are examined.
Castell and Blumenthal begin their contribution with a series of definitions
pertinent to the area of research in physical exercise and mood, paying
particular attention to the health-related aspects (psychological and physical
benefits) of aerobic exercise. A distinction is made between the acute and
chronic effects of such exercise on anxiety and depression in clinical as well as
normal populations. They review much of the contemporary research of clinical
and laboratory studies with emphasis on methodological limitations, e.g. need
for random experimental designs, more adequate descriptions of subject
characteristics involved and less reliance on self-report methods of assessment.
They conclude their chapter by providing possible directions for future
research.
Bull's chapter is concerned with individual differences in both the encoding
and decoding of non-verbal cues in the context of the social skills model. With
regard to encoding, people may vary in their ability to express themselves
non-verbally, while non-verbal cues may also provide encoded information
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INTRODUCTION
concerning what sort of individual they are. Individuals vary as well in their
ability to decode non-verbal cues, although there may be different types of skill,
such that the person who is good at decoding intentional or posed communi
cations may not necessarily be good at decoding spontaneous or unintentional
communications. These theoretical issues of decoding and encoding non-verbal
cues are discussed in terms of differences in age, culture, sex, personality and
psychopathology.
Conley's chapter on movement and personal styles is hypothetical in
character; the theoretical linkages which are suggested are important and
revealing. He examines the work of Allport and Vernon on expressive styles as
an example of an exciting and promising attempt at relating personality theory
with movement studies. He considers it a lost opportunity that this approach
was never actively pursued by researchers. The chapter describes the original
work of Allport and Vernon on expressive movement and elaborates the theory
of personal styles as integrative heuristic for the study of human movement and
other forms of expressive behaviour.
An unusual situation has emerged in sport psychology: trait psychology has
fallen into disrepute, as its value has been questioned as a result of the many
inconsistencies in the literature. Even in those instances where statistically
significant findings have been reported they have generally been of low explana
tory and predictive value, leading some to refer to 'experimenter suicide'
for those who choose to employ traditional trait strategies. This controversial
area is characterized by many deficiencies arising from methodological and
statistical weaknesses. Kirkcaldy's contribution examines critically the value of
implementation of personality studies in sport settings, discussing the need for
a control of response distortion, assessment of the magnitude of effect,
secondary source errors, moderator variables and the importance of theoretical
enquiry.
The article by Nias, on recreational behaviour and personality, commences
with a review of a series of large-scale factor analyses aimed at providing an
appropriate classification of interests. Personality and demographic factors are
amongst the determinants of lifestyle preference and recreational pursuits
which are considered. Furthermore, Nias goes on to examine the influence of
family and peers in the selection of activities: for example, husband-wife and
parent-child similarities as well as the relationship between marital satisfac
tion and type of leisure preference. The motivational aspects of participating
in particular pursuits are also examined. The needs for preferring certain
activities are assumed to be partially attributable to genetic factors. Finally, the
possible beneficial effects of recreation (in terms of improved well-being and
mental health) as well as the effect of competition are raised.
Liss examines children's play with toys and relates such play to skilled
learning. She reviews literature on sex differences in playing behaviour in
children, particularly the manner in which boys and girls differ in their toy play
in terms of factors of high and low activity level and gross and fine motor skills.
The issue is raised as to whether children acquire identical skills from male-or
female-traditional toys, as well as the degree of transference of such skills to
other toys. She considers the possibility of incorporating intervention pro
cedures such as modelling and reinforcement, for changing sex-typed play.
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