Table Of ContentIndividual Differences in Computer
Assisted Language Learning Research
This book syntheses cutting-e dge research on the role of individual differences
(IDs) in the field of SLA and in computer assisted language learning. It also
outlines the theoretical and methodological issues at the heart of this research,
presents empirical findings and charts future directions of this research.
Pawlak and Kruk provide an overview of the latest theoretical
developments in research on IDs in SLA as well as methodological consid-
erations that are crucial when researching individual variation, with special
emphasis on data- collection procedures that are most prominent in CALL.
The book goes on to summarize and explore a body of empirical evidence
concerning the role of individual difference factors in CALL, singling out
existing gaps, methodological problems and areas in need of further investiga-
tion. Finally, the authors provide a guide on how empirical investigations of
individual difference factors in CALL can be improved by incorporating the
latest developments from the broader field of SLA.
This book will be of great interest to postgraduates and scholars in
the domain of applied linguistics and second language education who are
interested in CALL, as well as those studying and undertaking research in
second language learning and teaching.
Mirosław Pawlak is Professor of English at the Faculty of Pedagogy and
Fine Arts, Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz, Poland, and the Faculty
of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Applied Sciences, Konin,
Poland. His research interests include grammar instruction, corrective feed-
back, individual differences factors and classroom interaction.
Mariusz Kruk, PhD, works at the University of Zielona Góra, Poland. His
main areas of interest include individual difference variables (e.g., boredom,
motivation, anxiety) and the application of technology in foreign language
learning and teaching.
New Directions in Computer Assisted Language Learning
Series Editors: Mark Peterson and Mariusz Kruk
Understanding Emotions in English Language Learning in Virtual Worlds
Mariusz Kruk and Mirosław Pawlak
Digital Games in Language Learning
Case Studies and Applications
Edited by Mark Peterson and Nasser Jabbari
Individual Differences in Computer Assisted Language Learning Research
Mirosław Pawlak and Mariusz Kruk
Individual Differences in
Computer Assisted Language
Learning Research
Mirosław Pawlak and Mariusz Kruk
First published 2023
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 Mirosław Pawlak, Mariusz Kruk
The right of Mirosław Pawlak, Mariusz Kruk to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing- in- Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 9781032145907 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032145884 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003240051 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/ 9781003240051
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Newgen Publishing UK
Contents
Introduction 1
1 An overview of selected CALL- based technologies 4
Introduction 4
Interactive whiteboards 5
Social networking platforms 6
Corpora 7
Mobile devices 8
Virtual worlds 9
Digital games 11
Computer- mediated communication 12
Extended reality 13
Conclusion 15
2 Key developments in research on ID factors in SLA 17
Introduction 17
Current trends in research on ID factors in SLA 18
Age 20
Gender/ sex 22
Aptitude and working memory 23
Personality 27
Grit 28
Learning styles 30
Learning strategies and self- regulation 32
Beliefs 34
Motivation 37
Willingness to communicate 40
Engagement 42
Emotions 45
Conclusion 48
newgenprepdf
vi Contents
3 Methodological issues in investigating ID factors 50
Introduction 50
Data- collection instruments and analytical procedures in
research on ID factors 51
Macro- and micro- perspective in research on ID factors 55
Intervention- based studies involving ID factors 60
Conclusion 62
4 Overview of research on ID factors in CALL settings 63
Introduction 63
Demographic variables of age and gender/ sex 64
Aptitude and working memory 65
Personality 67
Grit 69
Learning styles 69
Learning strategies and self- regulation 71
Beliefs 76
Motivation 80
Willingness to communicate 83
Engagement 85
Emotions 87
Conclusion 91
Conclusions and future directions 93
References 97
Index 144
Introduction
The success of second or foreign language (L2) learning, whether it occurs
in instructed or uninstructed settings, depends on a wide range of factors.
Some of these factors are external to the learner and encompass, among other
things, everyday access to the target language (TL), availability of suitable
learning resources (e.g., textbooks, materials, educational software), the quan-
tity and quality of classroom instruction, the qualifications and dedication of
the teacher or classroom dynamics, to name but a few. The other group is
constituted by learner-i nternal factors, or individual difference (ID) variables,
such as, for example, aptitude, personality, beliefs, learning styles, learning
strategies, willingness to communicate or different kinds of emotions. The
ID factors combine to create overall individual learner profiles, which can be
to some extent adjusted to learning conditions, and, it could be argued, can
supersede the impact of external influences. To give an example, an L2 learner
who is endowed with considerable aptitude, is highly motivated (for whatever
reason) and can adeptly employ learning strategies that are compatible with
his or her learning styles or personality is likely to succeed even in situations
when learning conditions can be viewed as unpropitious (e.g., limited with
the TL, few contact hours, unqualified teachers). On the other hand, some
aspects of individual variation might be more consequential than others, as
is evident in a situation when low aptitude is compensated for by motivation
and perseverance (i.e., grit).
In view of these considerations, it should come as no surprise that empir-
ical investigations of the role ID factors have constituted one of the most
important but also most robust lines of inquiry in the field of second language
acquisition (SLA) basically from its inception (e.g., Breen, 2001; Cohen &
Henry, 2020; Dörnyei, 2005; Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015; Ellis, 2008; Gregersen
& MacIntyre, 2014; Gregersen & Mercer, 2021; Griffiths & Soruç, 2020;
MacIntyre et al., 2016; Pawlak, 2017a, 2020a, 2021a). Over the years, SLA
researchers have devised different ways of tapping into such variables, used
them to characterize different learner populations, examined their mutual
relationships and links to attainment, looked into the mediating effect of some
of them with respect to the efficacy of different instructional options and
designed different pedagogical interventions intended to bring about changes
DOI: 10.4324/9781003240051-1
2 Introduction
in their nature or intensity. Obviously, there has been more focus on some
research avenues than others and, in the course of time, new foci of empirical
inquiry have emerged (e.g., boredom; Kruk & Zawodniak, 2018), new theor-
etical perspectives have been embraced (e.g., complex dynamic systems theory
or CDST; Larsen- Freeman & Cameron, 2008) and innovative methodological
solutions have been introduced (e.g., research methods based on CDST; e.g.,
Hiver & Al- Hoorie, 2020).
ID factors have also been investigated in a variety of contexts in which
L2 learning and teaching can transpire, including computer- assisted lan-
guage learning (CALL), understood here very broadly as any situation
in which new technologies are used to enhance and support L2 educa-
tion, whether in the form of specific devices, applications, environments or
settings. CALL researchers have focused, for example, on the role of working
memory (e.g., Kam, 2020), personality (Kelsen & Flowers, 2017), learning
styles (e.g., Lee et al., 2016), learning strategies (e.g., Shih & Huang, 2020),
beliefs (e.g., García- Gómez, 2020), motivation (e.g., Lamb & Arisandy,
2020), or positive and negative emotions (e.g., Kruk & Pawlak, 2022). This
said, one cannot avoid the impression that such research has been patchy,
with some ID variables being given much more weight than others, the latest
theoretical developments in the general field of SLA often being sidelined,
relationships among ID factors seldom being considered and the mediating
role of individual variation not being accorded the attention it deserves. This
clearly limited concern with ID factors is particularly blatant in state-o f- the-
art overviews of CALL where such issues are either totally marginalized,
mentioned in passing or considered mainly from a pedagogical perspective,
which of course is laudable in and of itself (e.g., Chun, 2011; Kessler, 2017;
Reinders & Stockwell, 2017; Ziegler & González- Lloret, 2022). In fact, com-
prehensive syntheses of research into ID factors in CALL settings are hard to
come by, and when edited collections devoted to this topic appear, they fail to
provide an exhaustive overview, with the choice of issues covered often being
somewhat haphazard (e.g., Rahimi, 2015).
For these reasons, the time is surely ripe for a book- length publication that
would, on the one hand, provide a systematic overview of research on ID
factors in CALL settings and, on the other, juxtapose empirical evidence of
this kind with the latest developments in this respect in the broader field of
SLA. Such an approach allows identification of areas where CALL studies
may have been lagging behind as well as such where advances in technology-
enhanced L2 education can be capitalized on or even enhanced to inform SLA
research, thus fostering fruitful dialogue between these two domains. This is
what motivated the present authors to embark on the admittedly arduous
task of putting together the present volume, and this is precisely the goal it
aspires to accomplish. The book consists of four chapters. Chapter 1 provides
insights into selected CALL technologies that have been used to enhance L2
learning and teaching, focusing on those that are the most innovative and
promising. Chapter 2 shifts the focus of attention to the main thrust of the
Introduction 3
book by offering a brief but highly informative overview of latest advances
in research on ID factors in SLA, including cutting- edge studies on variables
that have only recently found themselves on the radar of specialists. Chapter 3
is dedicated to the discussion of methodological issues in research on IDs that
are relevant to any context, including CALL, with special emphasis being laid
on the vital distinction between the macro- perspective and micro- perspective,
intervention- based research, and the different research methods that can be
harnessed to uncover the intricacies of individual variation in L2 learning
and teaching. Chapter 4 offers a selective overview of empirical investigations
of ID factors in CALL, trying to relate the research foci and methodological
choices to advances in the broader field of SLA. Finally, the conclusion
seeks to show how research in the two domains can benefit, complement and
feed into each other, and to outline ways in which empirical investigations
of individual variation in CALL- supported L2 learning and teaching can be
taken forward.
