Indian Castles 1206–1526: The Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate

68 Pages·47.37 MB·English

by  Konstantin Nossov, Brian Delf(Illustrations)

KONSTANTINSNOSSOVis
aresearcherandadvisoron
ancientandmedievalarms,
armourandwarfare,aswellas
theauthorofnumerousbooks
andarticlesonthesubject.
Hisparticularareasofinterest
includethehistoryofweapons,
fortificationsandsiegewarfare.
Hehaslivedallhislifein
Moscowandhastravelled
extensivelyinEurope,North
Africa,SouthAsia,AsiaMinor
andtheFarEast.
BRIANDELFbeganhiscareer
workingina Londonartstudio
producingartworkfor
advertisingandcommercial
publications.Since 1972,hehas
workedasafreelanceillustrator
onavarietyofsubjectsincluding
naturalhistory,architectureand
technicalcutaways.Someofhis
recentlyillustratedbookshave
beenpublishedinover30
countries.Brianlivesand
worksinOxfordshire.
Fortress • 5 I
Indian Castles
1206-1526
The Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate
Konstantin S Nossov • Illustrated by Brian Delf
Series editors Marcus Cowperand Nikolai Bogdanovic
FirstpublishedinGreatBritainin2006byOspreyPublishing, Artist's note
MidlandHouse,WestWay,Botley,OxfordOX2OPH,UK
443ParkAvenueSouth,NewYork,NY 10016,USA
Readers maycareto notethattheoriginal paintingsfromwhich
E-mail:[email protected]
thecolourplatesinthis bookwere preparedareavailablefor
privatesale.All reproduction copyrightwhatsoeveris retained by
©2006OspreyPublishingLtd.
the Publishers.All enquiriesshould beaddressedto:
Allrightsreserved.Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposeofprivatestudy,
research,criticismorreview,aspermittedundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatents MrBrian Delf
Act,1988,nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem, 7 BurcotPark
ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,electrical,chemical,mechanical, Burcot
optical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionof Abingdon,
thecopyrightowner.EnquiriesshouldbeaddressedtothePublishers.
OXI43DH
UK.
AC1PcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ISBN 10:I84176065X The Publishers regretthattheycan enterinto nocorrespondence
ISBN 13:978 I841760659 uponthis matter.
PagelayoutbyKenVailGraphicDesign,Cambridge,UK Acknowledgements
TypesetinMonotypeGillSansandITCStoneSerif
MapsbytheMapStudioLtd
TheauthorwishestoexpresssincerethankstoVladimirV.
IndexbyGlynSutcliffe
OriginatedbyUnitedGraphics,Singapore Golubevwhosuppliedallthe blackandwhite picturesfor
PrintedinChinathroughBookbuilders this book.
06 07 08 09 I0 I0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I Author's note
ForacatalogueofallbookspublishedbyOspreyMilitaryandAviationpleasecontact:
Forthesakeofconveniencein reading,theauthorusesa
NORTHAMERICA simplifiedversion ofspellingforSanskritwords inthe maintext.
OspreyDirect,c/oRandomHouseDistributionCenter,400HahnRoad, Intheglossary,however,amore precisespellingisgiven in
Westminster,MD21157 parentheses.
E-mail:[email protected] TherearetwowaysofreferringtotheancientIndiantext
TheArthashastra:thefirstindicatingthe bookandthechapter;the
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OspreyDirectUK,P.O.Box140Wellingborough,Northants,NN82FA,UK
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thenthechapterandfinallythesection in parentheses.
Allthephotographsinthis bookarefrom theauthor'scollection.
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All requestsshould beaddressedto:[email protected].
Sanskrit linear measurements
Iangula- 1.9cm
Iaratni- 0.45m
Idanda- 1.8m
Iyojana- 14.63km
Ikrosha- 3.66km
Ihasta- 0.45m
The Fortress Study Group (FSG)
Theobjectofthe FSG istoadvancetheeducationofthepublic
inthestudyofallaspectsoffortifications andtheirarmaments,
especiallyworksconstructedto mountorresistartillery.The FSG
holdsanannual conferenceinSeptemberoveralongweekend
withvisitsand eveninglectures,anannualtourabroad lasting
abouteightdays,andan annual Members' Day.
The FSGjournalFORTis publishedannually,and its newsletter
Casemate ispublishedthreetimesayear.Membershipis
international.Forfurtherdetails,pleasecontact:
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Contents
Introduction 4
Chronology 7
The principles of defence 8
Fort,castleorfortress? • Typesofcastle • Methodsofconstruction
Castle design and development 14
G~tes
Ditches • Walls • Towers • • Merlons,loopholesand machicolations
A tour of three castles 29
Tughluqabad • Bidar • Chittorgarh
Interiors and living quarters 41
The castles in war 44
The fate of the castles 5 I
The castles today 52
Bibliography and further reading 61
Glossary 62
Index 64
Introduction
By the end of the 1st millennium AD constant wars between the different
kingdomsofHindustanmadethecountryvulnerabletooutsideattack. Earlyin
the 11th century northern India found itself the object of ruinous raids by
several Muslim-Turkic rulers. The first ofthem worth mentioning is Mahmud
of Ghazni, who made 17 raids on India during his rule (998-1030). The next
significant figure was Muhammad of Ghur (r.1173-1206), who conquered
northern India and established control over areas earlier dominated by the
Rajputs. Muhammad of Ghur was succeeded by his slave, Qutb-ud-din Aibak
(r.1206-10), who founded the first of the five Muslim dynasties, collectively
known as the Delhi Sultanate. He made Delhi (then known as Dhillika or
Dhilli)hiscapitalandlaidthefoundations ofthefamous QutbMinarcomplex.
Throughout the 13th century the Mongols made frequent raids on northern
IndiaandtheDelhisultansweresoinvolvedinoppOSingthemthatexpanding
the borders ofthe sultanatewas almost impossible.
Between 1290 and 1320 the sultanate was ruled by the Khalji dynasty.
Ala-ud-din (r.1296-1316) substantially expanded the territory of the Delhi
Sultanate; his powerextendedwestward as far as the Indus River and eastward
as far as Varanasi. The Deccan and southern Indian states had to acknowledge
the Khalji overlords and pay tribute to the sultanate. Only Bengal in the east
wasgovernedbyindependentrulers.TheKhaljisweresucceededbytheTughluq
dynasty that was in power from 1320 to 1414. The second ruler from this
dynasty, Muhammad bin Tughluq, completed the conquest of the Deccan
andsouthernIndia, andannexedthemtotheDelhiSultanate. However, many
provinces rose inrevolt, partlyin response to the laxcontrolofthe sultans. As
earlyas 1336theHinduVijayanagarEmpireproclaimedindependenceinsouth
India, and the Muslim Bahmani kingdom was formed in the Deccan in 1347.
The Mongol conqueror Timur inflicted a severe blow on the Tughluq dynasty
when he invaded India and completelydestroyed Delhi in 1398. Anumberof
independent kingdoms emerged early in the 15th century: Mandu in 1401,
Gujarat in 1407 andJaunpur in 1408. Several independent Rajput kingdoms
appeared in Rajasthan, the most importantbeingMewar and Marwar.
Fortificationsofthe Urwahi Gate
ofGwaliorCastle.Thegate itself
isscreened bythe barbican and
cannotbeseenfrom this distance.
Beyond itthe road climbs upthe
gorgeand an unwantedvisitor
wouldfind himselfunderflanking
fire from thewalls on both sides
4 ofthegorge.
Many Muslim invaders came to India with fixed
ideasaboutmilitaryarchitectureandtheyemployed
perfect siege weapons. In carrying out their policy
ofaggression, the Delhi sultans sought to subjugate
rather than devastate newly conquered territories.
They could not afford to leave castles in the hands
ofrebellioussubjects, however, andhadtolaysieges
in order to capture the castles and complete their
controloveraregion. OnovercomingHinducastles,
theywould destroy the temples and erect mosques.
The invaders were more tolerant with regard to
fortifications, whether for reasons of economy or
because they recognized the effectiveness of Hindu
military architecture. As a rule, they were content
to restore those parts of a castle that had been
destroyedduringasiege, anditisstillpossibletoseetheoccasionalgatethatwas Badalgarhorthe HindolaGate,
rebuiltintheMuslim styleamongthe traditionalgates ofaHinducastle. thesecondgatefrom the bottom
The Delhi sultans of the 13th and 14th centuries were military leaders ofthe north-eastgatecomplex
ofGwaliorCastle.Builtinthe
who spent most of their lives on the march. Being extremely ambitious and
late-15th century,thegateis
vainglorious, theywished to be rememberedbygenerations to come. Not only
an excellentexampleof
didtheywinonevictoryafteranother, buttheyalsobuiltsumptuoustombsfor
Hindu architecture.
themselvesaspermanentmemorials.Theircapitalswerebuiltontheterritoryof
the modern cityofDelhi, with every new fortified town erected on a bare plot
oflandandinhabitedbycitizensmovedfrom theoldercitythatwasonlyafew
kilometres away. These cities sometimes existed for no more than a few years
before they were abandoned. Muhammad bin Tughluq excelled all the others
in this respect. He added the Adilabad Fortress to the newlybuiltTughluqabad
in 1325, only to move all the inhabitants into a new City, Jahanpanah, a few
yearslater.In1328hetransferredhiscapitaltoDaulatabad,forcingtheresidents
to cover a distance of 1,127km. Nine years later he returned his capital to
Dhillika(Delhi), butthousands ofthosewho accompanied himdidnotsurvive
the journey.
Muslim military architecture differed considerably from the Hindu style,
both in design (the shape of arches and vaults, for example) and elements of
decor. Sometimes extremelyutilitarian, even severe as in Tughluqabad, Muslim
fortification merged over time with Hindu influences, giving rise to a new,
Hindu-Muslim style. As the dominance of the Delhi sultans expanded further
south, sotoo, didtheimpactofMuslimarchitecture. WhileMuslimarchitecture
gainedafirmholdintheDeccan,itdidnotwinrecognitionintheextremesouth
of Hindustan where, as in Rajasthan in western India, fortifications were still
builtinthe Hindustyle.
The last two dynasties ofthe DelhiSultanate, the Sayyids (1414-51) and the
Lodis (1451-1526), were involved in incessant civil disorder. By the 15th-early
16th centuries the borders of the Delhi Sultanate were dramatically reduced:
it now covered the Punjab, the province ofDelhi and the valley ofthe Ganges
and Yamuna. The situation attracted the attention of Babur, ruler of Fergana.
Between1518and1526BaburinvadedIndiafivetimes. Finally,on21April1526
he routed the army of the Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi at the battle of Panipat.
Afew days later Babur took Agra (the capital of the Lodi dynasty since 1502)
andDelhiwithoutasingleshot. BaburwasaMongul, orMughulinPersian, and
his victory marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the
MughalEmpire.
The decline of the Delhi Sultanate in the 15th century led to a sudden
growthinthenumberofcastles. Feudaldivisionsledto asituationwhereeach
lordneededtofortifyhisprovincewithnumerouscastles. Itwasaperiodwhen
Indian castles obtained their characteristic outline that would later be only
modified to meet newrequirements ofsiegewarfare. 5
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N - - - Modernstateboundary
DelhiSultanateboundaryc.1315
StatesvassaltotheDelhiSultanate
Amapofthe castlescited inthetextandguide.
250miles
Italso includesthe modern state boundariesand
I
the bordersofthe DelhiSultanatec.I3I5 500km
6
Chronology
1206 Assassination ofMuhammad ofGhur,Afghan 1320 Ghiyath-ud-dinTughluq,acommander
rulerwho had conquered northern India.His inAla-ud-din Khalji's army,seized the
vicegerentin India,Ghulam (Arabicfor'slave') throne ofthe Delhi Sultanate
Qutb-ud-dinAibak,declared his independence 1320-1414 Rule oftheTughluq dynasty
andfounded thefirst Muslim dynastyofthe 1320-25 Rule ofGhiyath-ud-dinTughluq,who
Delhi Sultanate,the so-called Slave dynasty builtTughluqabad,thethird city ofDelhi,
1206-10 Rule ofQutb-ud-dinAibak aswell as asplendid tomb for himselfnear
1206-90 Rule ofthe Slave dynasty thefortress
1210-36 Rule ofIItutmish,who managedto unite 1325-51 Rule ofMuhammad binTughluq,the
thewhole ofnorthern India,from the Indus builderofDelhi'sfourth city,Jahanpanah,
valley in thewesttothe lowerreaches of and erectorofanewfortress,Adilabad,
the Ganges inthe east,underthe control nearthetown-fortress ofTughluqabad
ofthe Delhi Sultanate 1328 Muhammad binTughluq transferred the
1221 Thefirstappearance ofthe Mongols in India capital from Delhito Daulatabad
when theysacked western Punjab,Sind and 1334-78 Muslim kingdom ofMadurai founded in
northern Gujarat the extreme south ofHindustan
1241 Mongol invaders captured Lahore,killing 1336 Vijayanagar Empirefounded in the south
nearlyall its inhabitants and levellingthe ofHindustan
town wallstotheground 1337 Delhi becamethe capital ofthe Delhi
1246 The MongolstookUch and Multan sultans again
1266-87 Rule ofBalbanwho consolidated central 1347 Bahmani kingdom founded in thewestofthe
power,putdown armed uprisings and central Deccan.
repelled several Mongol invasions 1351-88 Rule ofFiruzShahTughluq,who builtDelhi's
1290-96 Rule ofJalal-ud-din FiruzShah whofounded fifth city (Firuzabad)
the Khalji dynasty 1388-1414 Decayofthe Delhi Sultanate.Manyprovinces
1290-1301 Several campaigns to seize Ranthambhor declared their independence.
Castle,which was finally captured by 1398-99 Timur invaded India.A terrible carnage in
Ala-ud-din Khalji in 130I Delhi and manyothertowns ofnorth-
1290-1320 Rule ofthe Khalji dynasty western India
1292 Another Mongol invasion 1414-51 Rule ofthe Sayyid dynasty,whose power
1294 Ala-ud-din Khalji,the nephewofFiruzShah, remained weak
marchedtothe Deccan and returned with 1451-1526 Rule ofthe Lodi dynasty
huge booty 1482-1512 Bahmani kingdom disintegrated into separate
1296-1316 Rule ofAla-ud-din Khalji who managedto Muslim kingdoms ofAhmadnagar,Golconda,
subjugateall Hindustan with the exception Berarand Bidar
ofBengal 1498 Arrival ofthe Portuguese squadron led by
1297-1307 The Mongols invaded several times and Vasco daGama
threatened Delhi,butAla-ud-din Khalji 1526 Baburdefeated the lastDelhi sultan,Ibrahim
repeatedly beatthem back. 1308marksthe Lodi,in the battle ofPanipat;end ofthe Delhi
end ofMongol incursions intotheterritory Sultanate and thefoundation ofthe Mughal
ofthe Sultanateterritory Empire
1300-01 Siege ofRanthambhorCastle bythe army
ofAla-ud-din Khalji.
1303 Ala-ud-din Khalji builds Siri,anew,so-called
second cityofDelhi.Chittorgarh besieged
byAla-ud-din Khalji
1305 Ala-ud-din Khalji conquered Malwa
1307-11 MalikKafur,ageneral and slave of
Ala-ud-din Khalji,led acampaign in the
Deccan and southern India 7
The principles of
defence
Fort, castle or fortress?
In India the words 'castle' and 'fortress' are not commonly used. All old
fortifications are referred to as forts: theyinclude the Red Fort at Delhi, the Red
Fort atAgra, Ranthambhor Fort and Gwalior Fort. The exceptional usage ofthe
term'fort'datesbacktotheeraofBritishrule. Inthe 17th-19thcenturiescastles
became a thing ofthe past in Britain and Europe, leavingthe word 'fort' as the
main and indeed the only name for closed fortification structures. The British
thereforecalledanyfortification 'fort'whetherEuropeansorIndianshadbuiltit.
Today, however, historians draw a clear distinction between 'forts', 'castles'
and 'fortresses'. Afort is acomparativelysmallmilitarystructureclosedoneach
side and housing a limited number of inhabitants, usually a military garrison.
Acastle, however, is a fortified residence of a feudal lord and his subjects. The
fairly widespread term 'fortress' most often implies a strong permanent closed
fortification occupying a large area, which may include a town. Sometimes the
word'fortress'isusedforanyformidablefortification, butafortressconsiderably
surpasses a fort in size. Most surviving fortification structures of medieval
India come closestto the notion of'castle'. As inEurope, castlesinIndia served
as dwellingsfor feudal lordsandcombinedbothbeautyandpracticalityintheir
construction;manyfunctionedaspalacesandremainmuchadmiredbytourists.
However, mostIndiancastlesoccupyasubstantialterritoryandthereforecanbe
classified as fortresses. In this book, departing from Indian tradition, the term
'castle' will be used in the first place; 'fortress' will be used to refer to especially
large castles andto dealwith the generaltheories ofconstructionand defence.
TheSanskritwordsfor castlesorfortresses aredurgaordurg. Durgaalsomeans
'aplaceofdifficultaccess', whichsuggeststhatawiderangeofnaturalobstacles,
such as mountains, rivers, etc., were taken into consideration when erecting a
fortress. The Sanskrit term pura is less frequently used for fortresses. The Hindi
word for fortress or castle is qila; in Rajasthan, Assam and some other districts
theyare calledgarh.
Types of castle
Ancient and medieval Indian treatises (shastras) abound with descriptions
of various types of fortresses. The most famous of these treatises is The
Arthashastra, probablywritten by the statesman Kautilya somewhere between
the endofthe 4thcenturyBeandthe 1st-2ndcenturiesAD. Mostshastraswere
writteninthe 1stmillenniumAD, althoughthereareexceptionsfrom earlieror
later periods. The shastras discuss many aspects of statesmanship and give
advice to rulers; they also describe sixprincipal types ofIndian fortress.
Jala-durga is afortress surroundedbywater, also known asaudaka-durgaand
ab-durga. There are two subtypes- the island fortress, or antardvipa-durga, and
the plainfortress orsthala-durga. The seaorthewaters ofariverwashthefirst,
whilethelatterisencircledwithartificialmoatsfilledwithwaterorirrigatedby
a river. Plain fortresses are naturallymuch more common.
Giri-durga, or parvata-durga, is a hill or mountain fortress. There are three
varieties: prantara-durga, giri-parshva-durga and guha-durga. Prantara-durga is a
fortress built on the summit (usuallyflat) ofa hill or a mountain. This was the
mostcommontypeintheMiddleAges, andthebestexamplesarethecastlesof
Gwalior, Chittor and Ranthambhor. In giri-parshva-durga both major civilian
8 structures and fortifications extend down the slope of a hill or mountain,