Table Of ContentCurrent Studies in Educational
Measurement and Evaluation
Editors
Prof. Dr. Salih ÇEPNİ
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Yılmaz KARA
Paradigma Akademi – August 2019
Current Studies in Educational Measurement and Evaluation
Editors: Salih ÇEPNİ, Yılmaz KARA
ISBN: 978-605-7 691-06-4
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Content
PREFACE ........................................................................................ V
Part I
Problem Solving in Education
Chapter 1
Problem Solving Procedure in terms of Cognitive Theories
Salih ÇEPNİ & Yılmaz KARA
Introduction ............................................................................................ 1
Cognitive Theories for Learning and Problem Solving ............................ 1
Human Cognitive Architecture ................................................................ 3
Cognitive Load Theory ......................................................................... 11
Cognitive Processes in Problem Solving ................................................ 16
Conclusion ............................................................................................ 19
Chapter 2
Improving Item Validity through Modification in Terms of Test
Accessibility
Yılmaz KARA
Introduction .......................................................................................... 25
Conceptual Understanding of Test Accessibility .................................... 26
Test Accessibility Model ....................................................................... 27
Item Modifications for Accessible Test Items: Theory to Practice .......... 31
Conclusion ............................................................................................ 36
Chapter 3
Traditional Measurement and Evaluation Tools in Mathematics
Education
Cemalettin YILDIZ
Introduction .......................................................................................... 41
Verbal Exams ....................................................................................... 43
Long-answer Written Exams ................................................................. 46
Short-Answer Written Examinations ..................................................... 50
True-False Tests.................................................................................... 53
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Yılmaz KARA
Chapter 2
Improving Item Validity through Modification in Terms
of Test Accessibility
Yılmaz KARA
Introduction
High expectations about test scores of central examinations, contestant
atmosphere mostly effected by the national wishes to get better international
examination scores, and adoption of performance based, activity related
formative classroom assessment approaches brought increasing attention to the
item and test development efforts (Wößmann, 2005). In recent years, increasing
and differentiated demands of society related to the assessment and measurement
processes conducted in education area mostly focused on more reliable and valid
question writing efforts. Efforts about the complexity of preferred learning
objects embedded into the questions stimulated the implementation of principles
of cognitive load theory to the question development techniques (Paas et al.,
2003).
At the same time, accessibility concept needs to be comprehended to
understand the approach of performance assessment suggested by the cognitive
load theory. Test accessibility is the measure to indicate the degree of provided
opportunities to display proficiencies over the target frameworks for the all test
takers (Beddow et al., 2008). Being successful in an examination requires giving
true answers to the test questions by using physical and cognitive sources to some
extent. If there is not any convenience between students’ cognitive capacities and
questions’ cognitive levels, test accessibility most possibly will negatively affect
the test results due to misunderstandings of what is really stated in the questions.
Thus, the increase of test accessibility briefly means reduction of question
elements possible to accumulate excessive cognitive work load and getting more
valid test scores (Kettler et al., 2009).
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Improving Item Validity through Modification in Terms of Test Accessibility
Cognitive capacity levels of structures used in questions need to be balanced
to the level that can all test takers cognitively comprehend. Beddow et al. (2008)
studied on increasing test accessibility through focusing on to elements of test
questions, giving place only to the necessary components for giving answer,
removing unnecessary texts, visuals, graphs, or tables. In this chapter, it was
aimed to focus on accessibility term at first. Then, adaptation of accessibility
theory was introduced to the test items for educational measurement and
assessment. Finally, item accommodation for test accessibility was exampled
through the assumption of availability to evaluate directly all test takers that have
highly wide and various specifications.
Conceptual Understanding of Test Accessibility
Access is more than participation to the general education with learning
program standards and standard based assessments as one of the basic principles
of education. Access is the term that is used to underline overcoming the
impeding factors which limit learner characteristics and skills to achieve
purposed and tested objectives of an educational teaching program. In terms of
teaching, access represents a whole range of opportunities for a learner to learn
the gains related to the intended teaching program. Considering current
educational system, this means all learners have proper opportunity to achieve
the objectives in the relevant learning program and to demonstrate performance
in objective-related achievement tests. In this process, teachers are encouraged to
teach learning program objectives by designing learning which will increase the
likelihood of learning for each student rather than testing. Unfortunately, there
are many obstacles to student lea rning (Akbulut & Çepni, 2013; Elliott et al.,
2018).
Accessibility is essential for effective teaching and fair testing which
expressed as a measure of how a system clears impeding factors and allows the
fair use of elements and services for different individuals. Learning, learning
materials and tests should be accessible for all students participating in the
learning process. Otherwise, it is highly probable that inferences from
observation and test results may be wrong as well as incomplete learning.
Therefore, educators have important responsibilities in achieving the best
possible accessibility (Solano-Flores et al., 2014).
In terms of the educational evaluation, accessibility is considered as a measure
of the ability of the student to indicate their gaining related to the tested standard.
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Yılmaz KARA
If the student is enabled to indicate their gaining in the educational evaluation
process, the educational evaluation is considered as accessible. Test accessibility
is a measure of how much a test event allows the participant to show information
about the target structure (Carney et al., 2016). Therefore, an accessible test or
test item does not include any structure that prevents the test participant from
showing how much student has the qualifications measured by the test. The
balance between the required physical, material, or cognitive facilities for a test
and the designed structure to measure determines the likelihood of the inferences
from test scores that reflect to test accessibility. The implications of such test
accessibility concerns are salient particularly for test-takers for whom extraneous
test or item demands preclude them from demonstrating what they know. Indeed,
extraneous demand reduces a test’s accuracy and precision as a measuring tool
for students for whom extraneous demand poses a hindrance, while test
accessibility is not reflected in the inferences made from test scores for students
for whom the extraneous demand does not reduce the accessibility of the test.
Test accessibility is at the highest level as all the students exhibit their gains on
the tested construct without any obstacles (Cawthon et al., 2013). Thus, item
access minimizes the bias and increases the justice for the learning and evaluation
process.
Test Accessibility Model
A test item that permits access for a student is free from features that reduce
the students’ ability to represent their qualification of the target construct mostly
described in terms of the standards on the related learning program. Test
accessibility should be considered as a correlation between the student and the
test item. More precisely, it is an interplay between properties of the test item and
qualifications of the students. Figure 2.1 presents the model that situates access
to assessment in the educational measurement and assessment. Viewing the
figure from left to right, a student in school receives access to learning through
the instruction he or she receives in the classroom in the context of the standards
which are defined on the learning program. The purpose of this instruction is to
provide the student (or, in our terms, the test-taker) with the knowledge, skills,
and abilities that will be needed to participate successfully in the test event, which
involves a set of interactions between the student and the test. The outcome of
this test is a score, from which an inference is made about the student knowledge,
skills, and abilities as they pertain to the tested content. Based on these inferences,
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Improving Item Validity through Modification in Terms of Test Accessibility
decisions are made that may influence the subsequent learning program and/or
instruction the student receives (Elliott et al., 2018).
Figure 2.1 Unified model of educational access (Beddow, 2011).
The central part of this model is the notion of the test event (Figure 2.2). A
test event is supposed to consist of the student’s engagement with the test
materials with the purpose of generating a result that accurately reflects their
qualification of the tested content. An optimal test event, therefore, produces a
score that represents only the interaction between the student qualification of the
tested content and the test itself. If a students’ improper access to the test event
influences their score on the test, then the test event consisted of not only the
targeted interaction (i.e., the interaction intended for measurement) but also one
or more ancillary interactions. The accessibility of a test for an individual test-
taker is based on the impact of these interactions on the test score. Therefore, the
accessibility of a test necessarily differs from one test-taker to another based on
the individual differences between those test-takers (Laughton, 2014).
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Figure 2.2 Test Event
In scope of assessment development and evaluation, test error refers to the
discrepancy between a students’ “true score”(i.e., his or her score if the test or
test item represented a perfect measurement of the students’ qualification in terms
of the tested content, yielding a score that is free of construct-irrelevant variance)
and their actual score. In the theoretical model of test error resulting from
accessibility, the test-taker characteristics (i.e., potential interactors with features
of the test) are considered in the five groups: perceptive, physical, receptive,
emotive, and cognitive. Each of these sources of error can be linked with one or
more categories of test or test item features, including the mode or means of
response, mode of delivery, setting, consequences, and the demand for cognitive
resources. Although physical access is an important dimension of accessible
testing, most physical access needs can be addressed through typical accessibility
or universal design methods (Kavanaugh, 2017).
For example, the intended construct for a university entrance assessment may
be to solve problems involving measurement and estimation. Such items may
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Improving Item Validity through Modification in Terms of Test Accessibility
contain substantial printed text that students must read. For a student to
understand the problem presented and subsequently respond, he or she must be
able to detect and decode this printed text. A test-taker with a reading disability
or visual impairment may be unable to do so (Harayama, 2013). The students are
prevented from indicating their qualifications due to an inability to access item
content. According to Beddow (2011), “the test-taker characteristics that interact
with test or test item features and either promote or inhibit one’s access to the test
event are referred to as access skills” (p. 381-382). As illustrated, often implicit
in the design of many state tests is an assumption that test takers will possess
certain access skills (e.g. ability to decode printed text, see a graph, hold a pencil
and legibly handwrite their responses, maintain attention and motivation
throughout the test) that are necessary for meaningful participation. However, the
extent to which individual students possess these skills can vary substantially.
The influential nature of categories on subsequent test scores is often
discussed in terms of access skills, defined as the specific qualifications required
to engage a test for the purpose of accurate measurement. The measurement
purpose of most educational tests is to examine the degree of a test-taker’s
mastery of qualifications, referred to as the target construct. Similarly, each of
the items on the test is either implicitly or explicitly designed to measure part of
this target construct, with the assumption that the sum of the test items represents
an enough sample to measure standards of the learning program. Although the
target construct of a complete test often is relatively clear (e.g., Year 3 Grammar,
Advanced University Biology), the specific construct targeted for measurement
by an individual test item within the test may be less so. It is of critical
importance, therefore, to determine the target construct not only for the test, but
also for each of the test items. Ideally, these definitions are generated by the test
developers.
When the target construct is sufficiently set apart (i.e., defined in terms of the
level of knowledge tested, cognitive demand, reading level, context), it is easier
to discern the various access skills that are necessary to engage the construct.
However, many achievement tests set apart the target construct to the level of
clusters or strands of knowledge, but the item writers are given great latitude in
terms of how the items measure them. As a result, the items may measure
ancillary constructs that are not explicitly defined in the target construct specified
by the developer (Perlman et al., 2016).
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Item Modifications for Accessible Test Items: Theory to Practice
A group of students has different members in terms of accessibility skills. For
this, it is hard to write test items which are accessible for all students. Still, an
item writer needs to consider the accessibility to ensure that students enough
interacted with the item elements through using their access skills. Otherwise,
students will not be provided an evaluation process to demonstrate their
knowledge on target construct. In order to enable optimal accessibility, item
writer need to identify accessibility level of the item and modify the elements to
increase the accessibility for more students (Vanchu-Orosco, 2012). The
elements of an item are presented in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 Anatomy of an item
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