Implicit vs. Explicit Processes of Motivation and Affect Regulation in Unconsciously and

230 Pages·2012·1.52 MB·English

by  Mirko Wegner

Implicit vs. Explicit Processes of Motivation and Affect Regulation
in Unconsciously and Consciously Critical Situations in Sports
_________________________________________________________________________
Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor der Philosophie (Dr. phil.)
Eingereicht am 6. Dezember 2011, verteidigt am 11. April 2012 an der
Philosophischen Fakultät IV der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Institut für Sportwissenschaft
von
Mirko Wegner (M.A.Ed.)

Prof. Dr. Jan-Hendrik Olbertz
Präsident der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Prof. Dr. Ernst von Kardorff
Dekan der Philosophischen Fakultät IV

Begutachtet von
Prof. Dr. Hanno Strang
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institut für Sportwissenschaft
Prof. Dr. Henning Plessner
Universität Heidelberg, Institut für Sport und Sportwissenschaft

ABSTRACT
Dual-process models distinguish implicit and explicit ways of information processing
(Strack & Deutsch, 2004). Implicit processes are based on associative affective net-
works and operate fast and unconsciously. Explicit processing is a cognitive, usually
slow, deliberate, and conscious way of decision-making. Dual-process models of moti-
vation propose that implicit motives predict long-term behavior and explicit motives
predict deliberate decisions (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989). Up-regulation
of positive affect and down-regulation of negative affect activate implicit cognitive sys-
tems while regulation in the opposite direction triggers explicit information processing
(J. Kuhl, 2000a).
Within three field studies it is investigated whether implicit vs. explicit motivational
processes are of discriminant validity for professional athletic behavior in uncon-
sciously vs. consciously critical situations. In study one and two, tennis (N = 60) and
basketball professionals’ (N = 56) abilities to regulate positive and negative affect
(ACS-90; J. Kuhl, 1994) are assessed. In study three (N = 86) the additional measures
of implicit (OMT; J. Kuhl & Scheffer, 1999) and explicit motives (PRF; D. N. Jackson,
1999) as well as conscious self-regulation (VCQ; J. Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) are used.
Study one proposes that explicit processing (low positive affect regulation) supports
performance in objectively critical situations (tie breaks) in tennis. However, in con-
sciously critical situations no advantage for explicit processing athletes could be found.
In study two implicitly processing (high negative affect regulation) basketball players
perform better in objectively critical games. In the final study racquet sportsmen who
process explicitly perform better in consciously critical situations. In contrast, in uncon-
sciously critical situations athletes with high implicit motives gain better results. Find-
ings are discussed from the perspective of task specificity in different kinds of sport,
degree of awareness of critical situations, and athletes’ individual differences.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Duale Prozessmodelle unterscheiden implizite und explizite Formen der Informations-
verarbeitung (Strack & Deutsch, 2004). Implizite Verarbeitung erfolgt schnell und un-
bewusst und basiert auf affektiv-assoziativen Netzwerken. Explizite Verarbeitung ge-
schieht überlegt und langsam und beinhaltet bewusste, kognitive Entscheidungspro-
zesse. In dualen Prozessmodellen der Motivation sagen implizite Motive langfristiges
Verhalten und explizite Motive bewusste Entscheidungen vorher (McClelland, et al.,
1989). Hoher positiver Affekt sowie geringer negativer Affekt aktivieren implizite kogni-
tive Systeme während eine entgegen gesetzte Ausprägung explizite Informationsver-
arbeitung bahnt (J. Kuhl, 2000a).
Drei Feldstudien untersuchen die diskriminante Validität impliziter vs. expliziter motiva-
tionaler Prozesse für das Verhalten in unbewussten vs. bewussten kritischen Situatio-
nen im Hochleistungssport. In Studie 1 und 2 wird bei Tennis- (N = 60) und Basketball-
spielern (N = 56) die Fähigkeit erhoben, positiven und negativen Affekt zu regulieren
(ACS-90; J. Kuhl, 1994). In Studie 3 (N = 86) werden zusätzlich implizite (OMT; J. Kuhl
& Scheffer, 1999) und explizite Motive (PRF; D. N. Jackson, 1999) sowie die Fähigkeit
zur bewussten Selbstregulation (VCQ; J. Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) gemessen.
In Studie 1 sagen explizite Formen der Verarbeitung (niedrige positive Affektregulation)
die Tennisleistung in objektiv kritischen (wie Tie Breaks) aber nicht in bewusst kriti-
schen Situationen vorher. In Studie 2 führt implizite Verarbeitung (hohe negative Af-
fektregulation) zu besseren Basketballleistungen in objektiv kritischen Spielen. In Stu-
die 3 unterstützt explizite Verarbeitung Leistungen in bewusst kritischen Situationen im
Rückschlagsport. In unbewusst kritischen Situationen erzielen dagegen Sportler mit
ausgeprägten impliziten Motiven bessere Ergebnisse. Die Befunde werden hinsichtlich
der Aufgabenspezifität in verschiednen Sportarten, dem Grad der Bewusstheit kriti-
scher Situationen sowie der Persönlichkeitsunterschiede von Athleten diskutiert.

CONTENT

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................5

INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................15

Dual-System Models in Social Psychology.........................................................20

Associate vs. Rule-Based Processing Modes..............................................22
Associative Processing Mode • Rule-Based Processing Mode
The Reflective-Impulsive Model.....................................................................25
Impulsive System • Reflective System
Dual-Process Models of Motivation.....................................................................30

Information-Processing Model of Implicit and Explicit Motives.................34
Implicit Motives • Explicit Motives • Interactions • Achievement Motive •
Affiliation Motive • Power Motive • Conclusion
Personality-Systems-Interaction Theory (PSI).............................................46
Intuitive Behavior Control (IBC) • Object Recognition (OR) • Intension
Memory (IM) • Extension Memory (EM) • Interactions • Self-Enactment •
Volitional Inhibition
Affect Regulation ............................................................................................52
Affect • Affect and Cognition • Regulation of Positive Affect (PA) • Regu-
lation of Negative Affect (NA) • Studies on Affect in Sports • Action &
State Orientation • Studies on Action Orientation in Sports
Critical Situations...................................................................................................64

Critical Situations in Sports...........................................................................64
Physiological Basis • Cognitive Appraisal • Definitions of Crisis in Sports
• Moderating Variables
Unconsciously Critical Situations.................................................................71
Unconsciousness • Unconscious Volition • Unconscious Stress •
Conclusion
Ecological Validity.................................................................................................80

Hypotheses.............................................................................................................83
Hypothesis One • Hypothesis Two • Hypothesis Three • Hypothesis
Four • Hypothesis Five
STUDY 1: Affect Regulation of Elite Tennis Players in Consciously
Critical Situations........................................................................................................85

Method.....................................................................................................................85
Participants • Procedure • Subjectively Critical Situations • Ability to
Regulate Positive and Negative Affect • Percentage of Points Won •
Career Performance • Design and Statistical Analyses
Results.....................................................................................................................89

Descriptive Statistics......................................................................................89
Affect Regulation • Career Performance
Critical Situations and Tennis Performance.................................................90
Career Performance • Game Performance
Affect Regulation and Tennis Performance..................................................91
Negative Affect Regulation • Positive Affect Regulation
Affect Regulation and Tennis Performance in Critical Situations..............93
Career Performance • Game Performance
Discussion..............................................................................................................95
Explicit Processing in Critical Situations in Tennis • Implicit Processing
and Career Performance • State Orientation and Emotional Support
STUDY 2: Affect Regulation of Elite Basketball Players in Objectively
Critical Situations........................................................................................................99

Method.....................................................................................................................99
Participants • Procedure • Objectively Critical Situations • Ability to
Regulate Positive and Negative Affect • Performance Data • Design and
Statistical Analyses
Results...................................................................................................................102
Descriptive Statistics....................................................................................102
Affect Regulation • Season Performance • Objectively Critical Situations
Critical Situations and Basketball Performance.........................................104
Season Performance • Game Performance
Affect Regulation and Basketball Performance.........................................106
Negative Affect Regulation • Positive Affect Regulation