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Implementing Peace Agreements
Previous Publication
Editor, East Africa and the Horn: Confronting
Challenges to Good Governance
Implementing Peace Agreements
Lessons from Mozambique,
Angola, and Liberia
Dorina A. Bekoe
IMPLEMENTING PEACE AGREEMENTS
Copyright © Dorina A. Bekoe, 2008.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2008 978-0-230-60259-5
The author is grateful for permission for use of the following material:
Portions of the Introduction and other chapters appear in Dorina A. Bekoe, “Mutual
Vulnerability and the Implementation of Peace Agreements: Examples from
Mozambique, Angola, and Liberia,” International Journal of Peace Studies Vol. 10,
no. 2 (Autumn/Winter 2005), pp. 43–68. Copyright 2005 International Journal of
Peace Studies.
Portions of the Introduction and a version of chapter four are reproduced with permission
from Dorina A. Bekoe, “Toward a Theory of Peace Agreement Implementation: The
Case of Liberia,” Journal of Asian and African Studies Vol. 38 (2003), pp. 256–294.
Copyright ©Sage Publications, 2003, by permission of Sage Publications Ltd.
Cover Art: Kofi Senyo Honu
The cover design depicts the Adinkra symbol, Bi nka Bi. The Asante of Ghana use
Adinkra symbols to convey philosophical sayings. Bi nka Bi, drawn as two fish biting
each other, translates into “do not bite one another,” and promotes the concept of
peace and harmony.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any
manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief
quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews.
First published in 2008 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN™
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Companies and representatives throughout the world.
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan
division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd.
Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom
and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European
Union and other countries.
ISBN 978-1-349-37090-0 ISBN 978-0-230-61167-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/9780230611672
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bekoe, Dorina Akosua Oduraa.
Implementing peace agreements : lessons from Mozambique, Angola, and
Liberia / Dorina A. Bekoe.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Peace-building—Mozambique. 2. Peace-building—Angola. 3. Peace-
building—Liberia. 4. Peace—Case studies. 5. Intervention (International law)—
Case studies. I. Title.
JZ5584.M85B45 2008
327.1972—dc22 2007029398
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Design by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India.
First edition: April 2008
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Transferred to Digital Printing in 2013
This book is dedicated to my family
for all their love and support.
Contents
Acknowledgments ix
List of Tables, Figures, and Boxes xi
List of Abbreviations xiii
List of Key Personalities xv
1. Introduction 1
2. Surprise Peace in Mozambique 25
3. Dodging Peace in Angola 61
4. Liberia’s Piecemeal Peace 95
5. Implications for Policymakers and the
International Community 131
Appendix Electoral Outcomes 145
Notes 149
Bibliography 183
Index 209
Acknowledgments
This book is a product of my dissertation and the work in conflict resolution
that I have done since then. In each of these periods, many people have helped
clarify my thinking, obtain information, and improve my scholarship.
I am thankful for the support offered by my dissertation committee:
Robert H. Bates, Monica Duffy Toft, and Jendayi E. Frazer. Their time,
support, insights, and critical comments have been more than I could have
asked for. They painstakingly read through several drafts and helped me
sharpen my thoughts. Above all, they gave me the encouragement to follow
through. During the writing of the dissertation, I was fortunate to have
been selected as a Young Africanist Fellow in 2001, under the guidance of
Dr. Gilbert Khadiagala, at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for
Scholars in Washington, DC. The fellowship afforded me the opportunity
to interview and meet many people familiar with the case studies in this the-
sis, namely, Herman Cohen, Trevor Gordon-Somers, Paul Hare, Cameron
Hume, James Jonah, Dennis Jett, William Minter, ’Funmi Olonisakin, Luís
Serapião, Ismael Valigy, Margaret Vogt, Agostinho Zacarias, and Matteo
Zuppi. I am thankful for the time all these very busy people took out of
their schedules to talk to me. Through them, I gained a deep appreciation of
the important, difficult, uncertain, and courageous work of making peace.
Finally, I am grateful for the time at the United States Institute of Peace to
complete the revisions to the manuscript.
Since leaving graduate school, I have worked with civil society representa-
tives and policymakers to gain a better understanding of peace and conflict in
Africa. Each time, I am struck by the tremendous courage of ordinary people
in the face of great uncertainty, destruction, fear, and death. I am thankful
to all who I have met, who are too numerous to name, that have taught me
the complexity of conflict and reinforced the urgent need to improve our
methods of ending war.
I cannot say enough about the support I received from my family. I
am grateful to my parents, Mirta and Seth, and sister, Nicoletta, for their
love and support. I am also thankful to Francis, Isabella, Charlotte, and
Rosemary, who have never failed to give me encouragement. Finally, I am
thankful to my husband, Kwaku Nuamah, who has given me the confidence
and encouragement to carry this project on to its end.
All errors of omission and commission are my own.
Tables, Figures, and Boxes
Tables
1.1 Summary of Effects of Variables 22
2.1 Mozambique: Elements of Political Reform 30
2.2 Mozambique: Pattern of Response to Renamo’s
Requests for Financial Assistance 32
2.3 Mozambique: Events Leading up to Demobilization 39
2.4 M ozambique: Proposals for the
National Elections Commission 44
2.5 Mozambique: Summary of Hypotheses and Results 59
3.1 Angola: Elements of Political Reform
in the Bicesse Accords 65
3.2 Angola: The Process of Centralization of Territory 67
3.3 Angola: The Pace of Troop Assembly 69
3.4 Angola: The Pace of Demobilization 71
3.5 Angola: Elements of Political Reform
in the Lusaka Protocol 78
3.6 Angola: Assembly of the Rapid Reaction Police 80
3.7 Angola: Executive Outcomes and
Undermining Credibility 83
3.8 Angola: The Rapid Reaction Police
and Executive Outcomes 84
3.9 Angola: International Action (IA) and Government
Concessions (GC) in 1998 87
3.10 Angola: Results of Hypotheses and Results 93
4.1 L iberia: Elements of Mutual Vulnerability
(November 1990–October 1992) 105
4.2 Liberia: Post-Bamako Agreement to Operation Octopus 109
4.3 Liberia: Mutual Vulnerability in the Cotonou Accord 111
4.4 Liberia: Undoing Mutual Vulnerability Post-Cotonou 117
4.5 Liberia: Increasing Insecurity in the Post-Abuja-I period 124
4.6 Liberia: Summary of Hypotheses and Results 129
5.1 Summary of Hypotheses in the Cases 141
xii TABLES, FIGURES AND BOXES
Figures
1.1 The Prisoner’s Dilemma 14
1.2 Changing Payoffs: A Mixed Outcome 19
1.3 Changing Payoffs: Inducing Compliance 19
1.4 Summary of Hypotheses Six–Nine 21
Boxes
1.1 Mutual Vulnerabilities and the Implementation
of a Peace Accord 11
4.1 Liberia: Timeline of Major Events and Agreements 102
4.2 Liberia: The Council of State 119
4.3 Liberia: Proposals for Council of State Membership 121
