Impact Cratering: Processes and Products

360 Pages·2012·14.006 MB·English

Impact Cratering
COMPANION WEBSITE:
This book has a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/osinski/impactcratering
with Figures and Tables from the book
Impact Cratering
Processes and Products
Edited by
Gordon R. Osinski
Western University London, Ontario
Elisabetta Pierazzo
Planetary Science Institute, Tuscon, Arizona
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
This edition first published 2013 © 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global
Scientific, Technical and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.
Registered office: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
Editorial offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK
The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material
in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.
The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the
prior permission of the publisher.
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book
are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or
vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter
covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert
assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Impact cratering : processes and products / edited by Gordon R. Osinski and Elisabetta Pierazzo.
pages ; cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4051-9829-5 (cloth)
1. Impact craters. 2. Cratering. I. Osinski, Gordon R., editor of compilation. II. Pierazzo, Elisabetta, editor of compilation.
QE612.I47 2013
551.3'97–dc23
2012018762
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.
Main image: This Mars Global Surveyor image shows a cluster of impact craters in northwest Arabia Terra. NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems.
Thumbnails. Left: The Haughton impact structure in the Canadian High Arctic. It is one of the best-exposed impact structures in the world and is
estimated to be 39 million years old. Landsat 7 satellite image. NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center/USGS.
Centre: Meteor crater near the Route 66, Arizona, US. ©iStockphoto.com/Helena Lovincic.
Right: The south pole of Saturn’s moon Enceladus. From afar, Enceladus exhibits a bizarre mixture of softened craters and complex, fractured terrains.
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute.
Cover Design by Steve Thompson
Set in 9/11.5 pt Minion by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited
1 2013
Dedication
This book is dedicated to my friend, colleague, and co-editor, Elisabetta Pierazzo, known to everyone as Betty.
Elisabetta (Betty) Pierazzo
1963–2011
Betty was recognized internationally as an expert on impact discussion and the highlighting of major research problems facing
cratering. She was a Senior Scientist at the Planetary Science the community. The Lunar and Planetary Institute Contribution
Institute in Tucson, Arizona. Betty attended graduate school at (#1162) that arose from this conference stands as a testament to
the Department of Planetary Sciences at the University of Arizona, Betty’s leadership.
receiving her Ph.D. in 1997 and was awarded the Gerard P. Kuiper In addition to her research, Betty was passionate about educa-
Memorial Award for this research. After a few years as a Research tion and public outreach. One of her earliest projects was the
Associate at the University of Arizona, she joined the Planetary Explorers Guide to Impact Craters program. Betty hired me to help
Science Institute as a Research Scientist in 2002. It is not an exag- develop this program during my time as a Research Associate at
geration to say that Betty played an integral role in the successful the University of Arizona. One of my fondest memories of Betty
expansion of the Planetary Science Institute and making it the was the trip we took together to Meteor Crater with Frank
renowned research organization that it is today. Chuang, where we did the filming for the virtual tour of this
Betty was an exceptional scientist and she made numerous crater. Since that time, this program has grown, reached thou-
important research contributions throughout her career. Amongst sands of school children, and served as a model for other pro-
her many achievements, she generated the first robust models of grams at the Planetary Science Institute.
melt production during impact events and of oblique impact Finally, any dedication to Betty would be incomplete without
events. In more recent years Betty increasingly focused on fur- mentioning Betty’s lust for life. Whether it was interacting with
thering our understanding of the environmental effects of impact colleagues on field trips to impact craters around the world, on
events. Another area of research that Betty played a pioneering the pitch playing soccer, or during the many social gatherings at
role in was in modeling the astrobiological consequences of her house in Tucson, Betty always had a smile on her face that
impact events. This ranged from investigating the delivery of invoked the same sense of enthusiasm and joy in everyone she
organics to planets to the generation of hydrothermal systems by met. Her approach to life made her an ideal mentor for all
impacts that may have been favorable sites for life on Mars. Betty’s budding scientists, but especially for women. She proved by her
community-minded spirit also led her to lead an international actions that there were many opportunities available to all hard
effort to benchmark and validate the various different numerical working scientists. She prioritized the happiness of herself and
codes used in the impact cratering community. her family, and by doing so ensured her success in work and life,
This sense of bringing together the community is also reflected leading the way for others to do the same. The impact community
in Betty’s leadership in developing the Bridging the Gap series of has lost an invaluable member; we all miss her.
conferences. I remember attending the first of these conferences
in 2003 as a graduate student and being incredibly impressed by Gordon Osinski
the level of community participation and the time dedicated to
Contents
Preface xi
List of contributors xii
1 Impact cratering: processes and products 1
Gordon R. Osinski and Elisabetta Pierazzo
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Formation of hypervelocity impact craters 3
1.3 Morphology and morphometry of impact craters 8
1.4 Impactites 12
1.5 Recognition of impact craters 14
1.6 Destructive effects of impact events 15
1.7 Beneficial effects of impact events 15
1.8 When a crater does not exist: other evidence for impact events 16
1.9 Concluding remarks 16
References 17
2 Population of impactors and the impact cratering rate in the inner Solar System 21
Patrick Michel and Alessandro Morbidelli
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Population of impactors in the inner Solar System 22
2.3 Impact frequency of NEOs with the Earth 24
2.4 Comparison with the impact record on terrestrial planets 25
2.5 Variability of the impact frequency during the last 3 Ga 26
2.6 The early cratering history of the Solar System 27
2.7 Conclusions 28
References 29
3 The contact and compression stage of impact cratering 32
H. Jay Melosh
3.1 Introduction 32
3.2 Maximum pressures during contact and compression 35
3.3 Jetting during contact and compression 37
3.4 The isobaric core 38
3.5 Oblique impact 39
3.6 The end of contact and compression 40
References 42
4 Excavation and impact ejecta emplacement 43
Gordon R. Osinski, Richard A. F. Grieve and Livio L. Tornabene
4.1 Introduction 43
4.2 Excavation 43
viii Contents
4.3 Impact plume 46
4.4 Generation of continuous ejecta blankets 47
4.5 Rayed craters 51
4.6 Generation of multiple ejecta layers 52
4.7 Distal impact ejecta 56
4.8 Depth of excavation 57
References 57
5 The modification stage of crater formation 60
Thomas Kenkmann, Gareth S. Collins and Kai Wünnemann
5.1 Introduction 60
5.2 Morphology and morphometry of simple and complex impact craters 62
5.3 Kinematics of crater collapse 64
5.4 Subsurface structure of complex impact craters 66
5.5 Mechanics of cavity collapse: what makes the target so weak? 69
5.6 Effects of oblique impact incidences on cavity collapse 71
5.7 Effects of rheologically complex targets on cavity modification 71
References 73
6 Impact-induced hydrothermal activity 76
Kalle Kirsimäe and Gordon R. Osinski
6.1 Introduction 76
6.2 Formation and development of the post-impact thermal field 76
6.3 Composition and evolution of the hydrothermal fluids and mineralization 79
6.4 Implications for extraterrestrial impacts and microbial life 85
References 87
7 Impactites: their characteristics and spatial distribution 90
Richard A. F. Grieve and Ann M. Therriault
7.1 Introduction 90
7.2 Autochthonous impactites 90
7.3 Parautochthonous impactites 91
7.4 Allochthonous impactites 92
7.5 Concluding remarks 101
References 102
8 Shock metamorphism 106
Ludovic Ferrière and Gordon R. Osinski
8.1 Introduction 106
8.2 Shock metamorphic features 108
8.3 Post-shock thermal features 119
8.4 Concluding remarks 120
References 121
9 Impact melting 125
Gordon R. Osinski, Richard A. F. Grieve, Cassandra Marion and Anna Chanou
9.1 Introduction 125
9.2 Why impact melting occurs 125
9.3 Terrestrial impact melt products 126
9.4 Planetary impact melt products 139
9.5 Impactor contamination 141
9.6 Concluding remarks 142
References 142
10 Environmental effects of impact events 146
Elisabetta Pierazzo and H. Jay Melosh
10.1 Introduction 146
10.2 The impact hazard 146
10.3 The impact cratering process 147
Contents ix
10.4 Shock wave effects 148
10.5 Ejecta launch 150
10.6 Long-term atmospheric perturbation 151
10.7 The response of the Earth system to large impacts 152
10.8 Environmental impact effects favourable for life 153
10.9 Concluding remarks 153
References 154
11 The geomicrobiology of impact structures 157
Charles S. Cockell, Gordon R. Osinski and Mary A. Voytek
11.1 Introduction 157
11.2 Physical changes 158
11.3 Chemical changes 165
11.4 Impact events and weathering 166
11.5 Impoverishment or enrichment? 171
11.6 Astrobiological implications 172
11.7 Concluding remarks 172
References 172
12 Economic deposits at terrestrial impact structures 177
Richard A. F. Grieve
12.1 Introduction 177
12.2 Progenetic deposits 177
12.3 Syngenetic deposits 182
12.4 Epigenetic deposits 186
12.5 Hydrocarbon accumulations 186
12.6 Concluding remarks 189
References 190
13 Remote sensing of impact craters 194
Shawn P. Wright, Livio L. Tornabene and Michael S. Ramsey
13.1 Introduction 194
13.2 Background 194
13.3 Photogeology 196
13.4 Morphometry, altimetry, topography 196
13.5 Composition derived from remote sensing 196
13.6 Physical properties derived from remote sensing 201
13.7 General spectral enhancement and mapping techniques 202
13.8 Case studies 203
13.9 Concluding remarks 207
References 207
14 Geophysical studies of impact craters 211
Joanna Morgan and Mario Rebolledo-Vieyra
14.1 Introduction 211
14.2 Geophysical signature of terrestrial impacts 211
14.3 The resolution of geophysical data 215
14.4 Modelling geophysical data 216
14.5 Case studies 217
References 220
15 Projectile identification in terrestrial impact structures and ejecta material 223
Steven Goderis, François Paquay and Philippe Claeys
15.1 Introduction 223
15.2 Current situation: projectile identification at impact craters and ejecta layers 223
15.3 Methodology 226
15.4 Review of identified projectiles 234
15.5 Concluding remarks 235
References 235
x Contents
16 The geochronology of impact craters 240
Simon P. Kelley and Sarah C. Sherlock
16.1 Introduction 240
16.2 Techniques used for dating terrestrial impact craters 241
16.3 Impact craters at the K–Pg boundary 246
16.4 Geochronology of impacts, flood basalts and mass extinctions 247
16.5 Using geochronology to identify clusters of impacts in the geological record 248
16.6 Concluding remarks 250
References 251
17 Numerical modelling of impact processes 254
Gareth S. Collins, Kai Wünnemann, Natalia Artemieva and Elisabetta Pierazzo
17.1 Introduction 254
17.2 Fundamentals of impact models 256
17.3 Material models 262
17.4 Validation, verification and benchmarking 267
17.5 Concluding remarks 267
References 268
18 Comparison of simple impact craters: a case study of Meteor and Lonar Craters 271
Horton E. Newsom, Shawn P. Wright, Saumitra Misra and Justin J. Hagerty
18.1 Introduction 271
18.2 Meteor Crater, Arizona 271
18.3 Lonar Crater 274
18.4 Comparisons and planetary implications 283
18.5 Summary and concluding remarks 285
Acknowledgements 285
References 286
19 Comparison of mid-size terrestrial complex impact structures: a case study 290
Gordon R. Osinski and Richard A. F. Grieve
19.1 Introduction 290
19.2 Overview of craters 290
19.3 Comparisons and implications 301
19.4 Comparisons with lunar and Martian impact craters 302
19.5 Concluding remarks 303
References 303
20 Processes and products of impact cratering: glossary and definitions 306
Gordon R. Osinski
20.1 Introduction 306
20.2 General definitions 306
20.3 Morphometric definitions and equations 307
20.4 Impactites 308
References 308
Index 310
Plate section can be found between pages 162–163
COMPANION WEBSITE:
This book has a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/osinski/impactcratering
with Figures and Tables from the book
Preface
Despite first being described on the Moon by Galileo Galilei in development of this book. First, in 2007, I co-organized the
the seventeenth century, it was not until the late nineteenth second Bridging the Gap conference in Montreal with Betty
century that the American geologist Grove Gilbert proposed an Pierazzo and Robbie Herrick. In January 2008, shortly after
impact origin for these lunar ‘craters’. This is long after the birth moving to Western University, I developed a graduate course on
of modern geology. It was not until 1906 that the first impact Impact Cratering: Processes and Products for the first time. The
crater on Earth – Meteor or Barringer Crater – was recognized by structure of this book is modelled on this course. Then, in late
Daniel Barringer in northern Arizona. By the 1930s, several small 2008, I was contacted by Ian Francis from Wiley–Blackwell fol-
craters on Earth were suspected as being of impact origin, based lowing the publication of a general article entitled ‘Meteorite
on their association with fragments of meteorites. Robert Dietz impact structures: the good and the bad’ in Geology Today.
established the first reliable geological criterion for the identifica- Ian proposed the concept of a book on impact cratering. With
tion of impact structures, in the absence of meteorites, in 1947, some hesitation – as I was only in my second year of being
with the recognition of shatter cones. The increased recognition a professor and not even in a tenure track position – I agreed.
of impact sites resulting from this discovery, together with the Soon afterwards I contacted Betty Pierazzo with the idea of con-
impetus provided by the Apollo landings on the Moon, led to a tinuing the spirit of the Bridging the Gap theme of bringing
more complete understanding of the formation of impact craters together scientists from various disciplines who study the impact
in the 1960s thanks to the pioneering work of a small group of cratering process, its products and effects. Betty gladly agreed
scientists, including Ralph Baldwin, Carlyle Beals, Robert Dietz, and this book is testament to Betty’s knowledge, integrity and
Bevan French, Eugene Shoemaker and others. An improved professionalism.
understanding of the impact cratering process continued during Sadly, Betty passed away in May 2011, after a battle with a rare
the 1970s and 1980s, with the recognition of several shock meta- form of cancer. A dedication to Betty can be found on the preced-
morphic criteria and dozens more terrestrial impact sites. Finally, ing pages. This book would not have been possible without Betty.
in the 1990s, two events finally resulted in impact cratering enter- I am greatly indebted to Richard Grieve for stepping in to assist
ing the geological mainstream. Namely, the spectacular impact of with editing during Betty’s illness and subsequent passing. I
21 fragments of the comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 into Jupiter over 6 would like to thank Richard and all the authors and co-authors
days in July 1994 and the discovery of the approximately 200 km of the various chapters in this book for their contributions and
diameter Chicxulub impact structure, Mexico, with its link to the taking time out of their busy schedules to make their contribu-
Cretaceous–Palaeogene mass extinction event. As has been argued tions happen. In addition to various authors and co-authors, who
by others, impact cratering can be considered geology’s latest provided peer reviews of other chapters, I would like to thank
revolution. Claire Belcher, Veronica Bray, Michael Dence, J. Wright Horton,
The initial idea for this book dates back to my time as a gradu- Fred Jourdan, David King, Lucy Thompson, Mark Pilkington,
ate student, in the late 1990s. As a student new to the field of Uwe Reimold, Ralf-Thomas Schmidt, John Spray, Axel Wittman
impact cratering, I was struck by the general absence of books on and Michael Zanetti for providing thoughtful and constructive
this topic. The few that were in circulation were mostly either reviews of various chapters. Lastly, I would like to thank the pub-
conference volumes on particular sub-topics or were out of print lishing team at Wiley–Blackwell for their unwavering support and
(e.g. Impact Cratering: A Geologic Process, published by H. Jay patience throughout this process.
Melosh in 1989). I also became aware of the general lack of
appreciation in the scientific community as to the importance of Dr Gordon R. Osinski
impact cratering as a geological process, particularly on the Earth. Western University
Three events then occurred in quick succession that led to the London, Ontario