Table Of ContentOXFORD STUDIES IN ANCIENT CULTURE
AND REPRESENTATION
Oxford Studies in Ancient Culture and Representation publishes significant
interdisciplinary research into the visual, social, political, and religious cultures
of the ancient Mediterranean world. The series includes work which combines
different kinds of representations which are usually treated separately. The over
arching programme is to integrate images, monuments, texts, performances, and
rituals with the places, participants, and broader historical environment that gave
them meaning.
Images andMonuments
of Near Eastern
Dynasts) roo Ioo
BC-AD
ANDREAS J.M. !(ROPP
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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© Andreas J. M. Kropp 2013
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2013
Impression: 1
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Data available
ISBN 978-0-19-967072-7
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CRo 4YY
PREFACE
This monograph is a revised and expanded version of my DPhil thesis 'Images
and monuments of local rulers in the Roman Near East,
100 BC-AD 100'
in classical archaeology submitted to the Division of Life and Environmental
Sciences (Unit of Archaeology) at the University of Oxford in September
2007.
The choice of a Roman Near Eastern subject and my enthusiasm for it originated
in unforgettable years spent in Beirut and on excavations across the region among
Near Eastern cultures past and present. During my DPhil at Oxford in and
2004
I gratefully received financial support from the Arts and Humanities
2005,
Research Council (AHRC), and again during my lectureship in the form of
research leave in the autumn semester My thanks, also, for support from
2009.
Lincoln College, the Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, and the
Craven Committee (Oxford) for extensive travels in and
2004 2005.
Though research is a solitary business, I am grateful to friends and colleagues
who have helped me along the way. My DPhil supervisor Bert Smith followed
the project with keen interest from its blurry beginnings and accompanied it with
advice and criticism. My examiners Fergus Millar and Kevin Butcher provided
important guidance and feedback. Thomas Weber awakened my interest in Near
Eastern client kings and introduced me to the wonderful world of Syrian sculp
ture. I am also grateful for fruitful discussions with Ted Kaizer, Robert Wenning,
and my father Manfred Kropp.
The chronological limits of this study require some explanation. is an
100 BC
arbitrary starting point that will be disregarded where it seems appropriate, for
instance to retrace the context of Hasmonaean Judaea. Thanks to recent mainly
numismatic advances, the eventful history of the last Seleukids now rests on a
relatively firm chronological basis, and the intricate relationship between various
branches of the Seleukid house and emerging local and regional powers can now
be examined with more clarity.1 Still, there are hardly any monuments that one
could integrate into the discussion: no monumental remains in Petra, Samosata,
Jerusalem,2 or other power bases of local dynasts; coinage in its earliest stages;3
no traces at all of the Ituraean and Emesan dynasties. In general, the poverty of
evidence for Hellenistic Syria before the first century cannot be overstated.
BC
' Ehling (2008) with extensive review of current debates and recent literature.
2 Except parts of the Temple platform discussed in Ch. 5 under 'Sanctuaries with royal support'.
3 Simon the Hasmonaean did not make use of the right to mint coins bestowed on him by Antiochos
VII in 137 BC (Mace. 15.6); cf. Schurer, Hist01y (I, 197 n.22). The first Jewish coins were issued by his
successor Hyrcanus, see Ch. 5 under 'Coin imagery'.
Vl PREFACE
Some of the monuments considered here do reach further back in time, such as
'Iraq al-Amir, dating to c.170 BC, but this rather serves as an indispensable missing
link for palatial architecture in centuries to follow. An archaeological study of
local dynasts before 100 BC cannot be written at the present state of the evidence.
The lower limit of AD 100 is easier to justify. Even though the annexation of the
Nabataean kingdom (AD 106) was not the definitive end of indirect Roman rule,
and client kings were once again set up in the later second and third centuries,
their political and geographical context is a different one, namely the Parthian
wars and the conquest of Mesopotamia. The early Trajanic period marks the end
of Roman client kings between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean.
Lastly, one word about translations. I have translated all the German, French,
and Italian quotes into English at the request of the editors.
CONTENTS
List of Illustrations
ix
List of Maps xvi
Abbreviations xvn
Methods, dynasts, and kingdoms r
1.
Visual strategies and messages
2
Context and viewer 8
Client kingship 10
Geography of the Near East 13
Roman conquest with leftovers 15
Kingdoms, sites, and peoples 19
2. Royal portraits 49
Four styles: pathos,t ryphe,v erism, and classicism 52
Near Eastern portraiture 56
N abataeans 60
Hasmonaeans and Herodians 72
lturaeans 78
Emesans So
Kommagenians 83
Fashions and costumes 87
3. Royal palaces 93
Tobiads: Hyrcanus' 'baris' at 'Iraq el-Amir 98
Kommagene: palace of Samosata 107
Hasmonaean palaces 110
Herodian palaces 115
Nabataeans: royal palace andparadeisosin Petra 156
Deciphering royal rhetoric 164
4. Royal tombs 175
Attitudes towards tombs and the dead in the Roman Near East 176
Nemrud Dag1: tomb of Antiochos I 180
Jerusalem: Herod's mnemeiono f opusr eticulatum 189
Jerusalem: tomb of Helena of Adiabene 193
Herodeion: royal tomb in Herod's Nikopolis 197
Petra: Khazneh al-Fir'aun 199
Vlll CONTENTS
Heliopolis: tomb of Zenodoros 205
Emesa: tomb of Samsigeramos 208
Bermel: the 'Mausoleum' 212
Nefesh: soul and tomb marker 216
5. Kings and cults 225
Near Eastern kings and gods 225
Coin imagery 231
Hellenistic paradigm: euergetism as diplomatic tool 253
Sanctuaries with royal support 262
Ruler worship 302
Ties to Rome: imperial cult 315
Significance of temples: survivals, revivals, or inventions? 338
6. Images and monuments: projections of royal ideology 343
Herod 344
Kommagene 357
Emesans 365
lturaeans 366
Hasmonaeans 367
Herodian dynasts 369
Nabataeans 371
Absorbing traditions to enhance royal prestige 382
Bibliography 385
Maps 441
Coin catalogue 445
Index Locorum 48 3
GeneralI ndex 490
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1 M. Aemilius Scaurus and P. Hypsaeus. Denarius (18 mm, 3.98 g) minted in
Rome c.58 BC. Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., vvww.
cngcoins.com. Mail bid sale 61, lot 1280 sold 22 May 2002. 16
2 A. Plautius. Denarius (20 mm, 3.70 g) minted in Rome c.55B C. Courtesy of
Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., www.cngcoins.com. Auction Triton XII,
lot 490 sold 06 January 2009. 16
3 Herod Agrippa I (AD 37-44). Bronze coin (24 mm, 15 g) minted in Caesarea
in AD 42/43. © the author. 38
4 Antioch under Severns Alexander (AD 222-35). Bronze coin (32 mm, 15.3 g).
Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., www.cngcoins.com.
Electronic auction 209, lot 274 sold 22 April 2009. 50
5 Antiochos VIII (Grypos) (121-98/6 BC). Tetradrachm (16.3 g) minted in
Antioch c.rn8-97 BC. Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.,
www.cngcoins.com. Mail bid sale 67, lot 894 sold 20 September 2004. 52
6 Mark Antony (44-30 BC) and Cleopatra VII (51-30 BC). Tetradrachm (15 g)
unknown mint (Tyre?) in 36 BC. Courtesy of Pritz RudolfKiinker GmbH &
Co. KG, Osnabri.ick/Li.ibke& Wiedemann, Stuttgart. Auction 124, lot 8558
sold 16 March 2007. 53
7 C. Antius C.f. Restio. Denarius (3.6 g) minted in Rome in 47 BC. AR
Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., www.cngcoins.com. Mail
bid sale 79, lot 995 sold 17 September 2008. 53
8 Augustus (27 BC-AD 14). Aureus (7.8 g) minted in Emerita (Spain) in 19-18
BC. Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., www.cngcoins.com.
Triton XI, lot 761 sold 8 January 2008. 57
9 Ariobarzanes of Cappadocia (95-63 BC). Drachm (4.7 g) minted in 68-67
BC. Author's collection. 57
IO Tarkondinrotos of Cilicia (36-31 BC). Bronze coin (23 mm, 7.3 gm).
Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., www.cngcoins.com.
Auction Triton V, lot 743 sold 15 January 2002. 57
n Phraatakes (Phraates V) and Musa (2 BC-AD 4). Tetradrachm (14,3 g.)
minted in Seleukeia in AD 2. Courtesy of Gorny & Mosch Giessener
Mi.inzhandlung. Auction 130, lot 1431 sold 8 March 2008. Photo: Lubke &
Wiedemann. 58
12 Ajax, high priest and toparch of Olba in Cilicia (AD rn-17). Bronze coin
(21 mm, 6.8 g) minted in Olba in AD 13. Courtesy of Gemini LLC. Auction
II, lot 309 sold II January 2006. 58
13 Coin portraits ofNabataean kings.© author. 61
14 Aretas III (85-63 BC). Bronze coin (20 mm, 6.5 g) minted in Damascus.
Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., www.cngcoins.com. Mail
bid sale 79, lot 449 sold 17 September 2008. 62
X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
15 Malik.hos I (59-30 BC). Drachm (16 mm, 3.4 g) minted in Petra in 35/34 BC.
Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., www.cngcoins.com. Mail
bid sale 82, lot 743 sold 16 September 2009. 62
16 Obodas Ill (30-9 BC). Drachm (17 mm, 4.0 g) minted in Petra in 21/20 BC.
Courtesy of Gemini LLC. Auction VI, lot 368 sold 10 January 2010. 62
17 Aretas IV (9 BC-AD 40). Drachm (17 mm, 4.5 g) minted in Petra c.6 BC-AD
14. Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., www.cngcoins.com.
Mail bid sale 70, lot 406 sold 21 September 2005. 63
18 Two coins of Aretas IV (9 BC-AD 40) and Huldu. Drachrn (18 and 17 mm,
5.9 and 4.0 g) minted in Petra AD 19/20 and 23/24. Courtesy of Classical
Numismatic Group, Inc., www.cngcoins.com. Mail bid sale 82 and 72, lot
751a nd 979 sold 16 September 2009 and 14 June 2006. 63
19 Aretas IV (9 BC-AD 40) and Shuqaylah. Bronze coin (17 mm, 2.6 g) minted
in Petra c.AD 16. Author's collection. 64
20 Aretas IV (9 BC-AD 40) and Shuqaylah. Bronze coin (18.7 mm, 4.2 g)
minted in Petra. Courtesy ofwww.forumancientcoins.com. (No details). 65
21 Malikhos II (AD 40-70) and Shuqaylah. Drachrn (17 mm, 3.7 g) minted in
Petra in AD 61/2. Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., www.
cngcoins.com. Auction Triton XI, lot 331s old 8 January 2008. 65
22 Two coins ofRabbel II (AD 70-106) with Gamilah. Drachrn (14 and 12 mm,
3.4 and 4 g) minted in Petra. Courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.,
www.cngcoins.com. Electronic auction 85 and 118,l ot 521a nd 87 sold 15
September 2010 and 13 July 2005. 66
23 Sandstone portrait ofObodas I(?) from Obodas Chapel in Petra, discovered
in 2001. H 27 cm.© L. Nehme, CNRS. 69
24 Djobb ed-Djerral;, Palrnyrene god on horseback and a goddess holding a
thyrsos( ?). From Seyrig and Starck)r (1949). Drawing by the author. 70
25 Himyarite drachrn (anonymous) from Arabia Felix (Yemen) minted first
century BC. Courtesy of Miinzen & Medaillen GmbH. Auction 30, lot 1111
sold 28 May 2009. 70
26 Alexander Jannaeus (104-76 BC). Triple(?) prutah (22 mm, 6.o g) minted in
Jerusalem. Courtesy of Gemini LLC. Auction VI, lot 281 sold 10 January
2010. Drawing courtesy of D. Hendin. 72
27 Herod the Great (40-4 BC). Prutah (19 mm, 3.2 g) minted at Jerusalem.
Courtesy oflra & Larry Goldberg Coins & Collectibles Inc. Auction 41, lot
2407 sold 27 May 2007. 73
28 Coin portraits of Herodian rulers. © the author. 74
29 Marble portrait of a diademed head found in Byblos. Beirut NM 12649.
Photo by A. Kropp and K.-U. Mahler, with kind permission of the DGA,
Beirut. 75
30 Herod Philip (4 BC-AD 34). Bronze coin (17 mm, 5.7 g) minted at Caesarea
Panias in AD 1. Courtesy of the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 76
