Table Of ContentImage-based Sexual Abuse
This book investigates the causes and consequences of image-based sexual
abuse in a digital era. Image-based sexual abuse refers to the taking or sharing of
nude or sexual photographs or videos of another person without their consent.
It includes a diversity of behaviours beyond that of “revenge porn”, such as the
secret trading of nude or sexual images online; “upskirting”, “downblousing”
and other “creepshots”; blackmail or “sextortion” scams; the use of artificial
intelligence to construct “deepfake” pornographic videos; threats to distribute
photographs or videos without consent; and the taking or sharing of sexual
assault imagery. This book investigates the pervasiveness and experiences of
these harms, as well as the raft of legal and non-legal measures that have been
introduced to better respond to and prevent image-based sexual abuse.
The book draws on groundbreaking empirical research, including surveys
in three countries with over 6,000 respondents and over 100 victim- survivor
and stakeholder interviews. Guided by theoretical frameworks from gen-
der studies, sociology, criminology, law and psychology, the authors argue
that image-based sexual abuse is more commonly perpetrated by men than
women, and that perpetration is higher among some groups, including
younger and sexual minority men. Although the motivations of perpetra-
tors vary, a dominant theme to emerge was that of power and control. The
gendered nature of the abuse means that it is best understood as a being on
a “continuum of sexual violence” because victim-survivors often experience
it as part of a broader pattern of gendered harassment, violence and abuse.
Written in a clear and direct style, this book will appeal to students and
scholars of criminology, sociology, law and psychology. Image-based Sexual
Abuse is also an essential resource for activists, legal and policy practition-
ers, technology companies and victim-survivors seeking to understand the
deeply complex nature of intimate-image sharing in a digital era.
Nicola Henry is an Associate Professor and Vice-Chancellor’s Principal Re-
search Fellow in the Social and Global Studies Centre at RMIT University
(Melbourne, Australia). She has published widely in the sexual field, and is
the author of War and Rape: Law, Memory and Justice (2011) and Sexual
Violence in a Digital Age (2017, co-authored with Anastasia Powell).
Clare McGlynn QC (Hon) is a Professor of Law at Durham University (UK),
whose research and collaborations with politicians, policymakers and the
voluntary sector has shaped new laws relating to pornography, sexual vio-
lence and image-based sexual abuse.
Asher Flynn is an Associate Professor of Criminology at Monash University
(Melbourne, Australia). She has written on a wide range of issues and is lead
researcher on several research projects examining gendered violence, AI-fa-
cilitated abuse, technology-facilitated sexual violence and image-based sex-
ual abuse.
Kelly Johnson is an Assistant Professor of Criminology at Durham Univer-
sity (UK). Her research focuses on sexual and domestic violence, particu-
larly in areas related to image-based sexual abuse and policing.
Anastasia Powell is an Associate Professor of Criminology & Justice Stud-
ies at RMIT University (Melbourne, Australia). She is the author of sev-
eral books addressing both technology and sexual violence, including:
Digital Criminology (2019, co-authored with Gregory Stratton and Robin
Cameron), Sexual Violence in a Digital Age (2017, co-authored with Nicola
Henry), and Sex, Power and Consent (2010).
Adrian J. Scott is a Senior Lecturer at Goldsmiths, University of London
(UK), where he is a member of the Forensic Psychology Unit and the Co-
Director of an accredited MSc programme in Forensic Psychology. He has
a broad interest in forensic psychology, specialising in the areas of stalking
and image-based sexual abuse.
“This book is essential reading for students, researchers, teachers, practi-
tioners, and policy makers seeking a rich social scientific understanding of
image-based sexual abuse. It is destined to become a classic piece of schol-
arship that significantly advances the study of the ways in which new tech-
nologies are used by men to abuse women.”
Professor Walter S. DeKeseredy,
West Virginia University
“This book draws on original survey and interview data to provide a com-
pelling account of how ‘new’ forms of abuse confront us yet again with the
familiar challenges stemming from living in a world still shaped by gendered
and patriarchal legacies.”
Professor Jan Jordan,
Victoria University of Wellington
Routledge Critical Studies in Crime, Diversity and
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Edited by Patricia Faraldo Cabana, University of A Coruña, Spain;
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The works in this series strive to generate new conceptual and theoretical
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The Political Economy of Punishment Today
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Edited by Dario Melossi, Máximo Sozzo and José Brandariz García
Gendered Injustice
Uncovering the Lived Experience of Detained Girls
Anastasia Tosouni
Image-based Sexual Abuse
A Study on the Causes and Consequences of Non-consensual
Nude or Sexual Imagery
Nicola Henry, Clare McGlynn, Asher Flynn, Kelly Johnson, Anastasia Powell,
and Adrian J. Scott
For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge.
com/criminology/series/CDCJ
Image-based Sexual Abuse
A Study on the Causes and
Consequences of Non-consensual
Nude or Sexual Imagery
Nicola Henry, Clare McGlynn,
Asher Flynn, Kelly Johnson,
Anastasia Powell, and
Adrian J. Scott
First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2021 Nicola Henry, Clare McGlynn, Asher Flynn, Kelly
Johnson, Anastasia Powell, and Adrian J. Scott
The right of Nicola Henry, Clare McGlynn, Asher Flynn, Kelly
Johnson, Anastasia Powell and Adrian J. Scott to be identified as
authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance
with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted
or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be
trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-0-8153-5383-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-351-13515-3 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman
by codeMantra
This book is dedicated to victim-survivors of image-based
sexual abuse and their supporters.
Contents
List of tables xi
Acknowledgements xiii
1 Image-based sexual abuse: beyond “revenge pornography” 1
2 Victim-survivor experiences of image-based sexual abuse 19
3 The harms of image-based sexual abuse
(with Erika Rackley & Nicola Gavey) 45
4 Image-based sexual abuse perpetration: power and control 67
5 Visual criminality: a theory of image-based sexual abuse 88
6 The missing culture of consent: shifting social norms on
image-sharing, sexual autonomy and harm 113
7 Seeking justice for victim-survivors of image-based
sexual abuse (with Erika Rackley) 135
8 Preventing image-based sexual abuse: ethics, consent
and respectful relationships 156
9 Conclusion 174
Index 181
