Table Of ContentLA-13577-T
Thesis
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Igniting the Light Elements:
The Los Alamos Thermonuclear Weapon
Project, 1942-1952
Los Alamos
NATIONAL LABORATORY
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for fhe Unifed Sfafes Departrm?nf of Energy under confracf W-7405-ENG-36.
This thesis was accepted by the Department of Science and Technol-
ogy Studies, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia, in partial ful$llment of the requirements for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The text and illustrations are the
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LA-13577-T
Thesis
Issued: July 1999
,
Igniting the light Elements:
The Los Alamos Thermonuclear Weapon Project,
1942–1952
Anne Fitzpatrick”
‘Consultant at Los Akzmos. The George WashingtonUniversity,
Center for Histoy ofRecent Science, Department ofHistoy,
801 22nd Sfreet, N.W., Washington, DC 20052.
Los Alamos
NATIONAL LABORATORY
Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545
Acknowledgments
I would like foremost to thank Joe Pitt, who first sent me to New
Mexico, where 1met Bob Seiclel; our acquaintance was an act of fate.
Subsequently, I discovered that Los Alamos not only changed the world, but it
changed my life.
No less influential were my advisory committee members at Virginia
Tech. Burton Kaufman consistently supported my work since my
undergraduate days. Bert Moyer, Richard Hirsh, and Dick Burian were always
encouraging, and provided valuable comments and critiques. All of my
committee members were excellent teachers.
All of the people of Los Alamos National Laboratory who welcomed
me and assisted me with this project are too numerous to mention here, but
several were outstanding. Beverly Mattys, Judy Rose, and Evelyn Martinez in
the Technology and Safety Assessment Division Office kept everything
running smoothly. Dale Henderson was helpful in introducing me to many
knowledgeable people. Steve Becker, Pat Garrity, Larry Germain, John
I
Hopson, Karl Lautenschlager, Steve Maaranen, Jas Mercer-Smith, Ray
Pollack, John Richter, Rod Schultz, Paul Whalen, and Steve Younger
I
provided enlightening information.
Many people assisted me with the research for this study. Roger Meade
and Linda Sandoval allowed me access to the Los Alamos Laboratory
Archives. Jack Carter, Marcia Gallegos, Linda Kolar, and Marlene Lujan in
v
the Los Alamos Report Library let me scour their old documents. Bill Davis
and Herb Rawlings-Milton of the National Archives helped me to collect
much important historical documentation.
A couple of individuals at Los Alamos assisted in other capacities. Bill
Palatinus read every page of this dissertation and worked tirelessly to see that
it survived security review. Carolyn Mangeng supported me professionally,
and became a role model and friend along the way.
Several people from the history of science and science studies
communities gave helpful feedback. Professors Lillian Hoddeson and Andy
Pickering at the University of Illinois, and Tom Cornell at the Rochester
Institute of Technology shared ve~ useful critiques.
Professor Joseph Wieczynski at Virginia Tech inspired me to retain my
academic first love -- Russian history -- while I pursued this project.
Many of those who were the subjects of this study graciously told me
their stories. They are Hans A. Bethe, Bengt Carlson, Foster Evans, Ed
Hammel, Roger Lazarus, J. Carson Mark, Nick Metropolis, Robert Richtmyer,
Robert Serber, Edward Teller, Anthony Turkevich, and Edward Voorhees.
Spencer Weart and the American Institute of Physics Center for the
History of Physics Grants-in-Aid Program kindly sponsored my interviews
with Drs. Richtrnyer and Serber.
Thanks to my parents for everything else.
This dissertation is dedicated to Michael Henderson, nuclear weapons
wizard and mentor to this historian.
vi
Table of Contents
...
TITLE PAGE........................................................................................Ill
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................ v
TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................... vii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................... x
CHAPTER ONE...................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW: WHY THE H-BOMB STILL
MATTERS ............................................................................................ 1
1.1. LOSALAMOSANT~DRSSIONPROmCHTISTORE..S..................................................................8
1.2. Thermonuclear WEApONsTsuDms ................................................................................... 10
1.3. POLITICAHLISTOR.Y......................................................................................................... 16
1.4. O~ICIWAND~CHNICaHISTORE.S.................................................................................. 19
1.5. SOCIOLOG...Y..................................................................................................................23
1.6. PARTICIPANATCS’COUN.T..S..............................................................................................24
1.7. CULTURAHLISTORI.E..S.....................................................................................................31
1.8.A~CHNOLOGICSAYLS~OFWAPONSRES~RCH~DD~LOPM~ ....................................31
1.9. GOALOFTHISSTUDY........................................................................................................36
2.0. CHAPTEORRGANIZATAIONNDSUMMAR.E..S.........................................................................40
CHAPTER TWO....................................................................................46
THE FISSION BOMB HAD TO COME FIRST................................................46
2.1. THEMANHATTDAINSTRICATSA~CHNOLOGICSfYi S~M.......................................................50
2.2. CALCULATIANTGOMIDCEVICESA:CRITICfiPROBLEFMORLOSWAMO.S..................................55
2.3. GETTINTGHEJOBDONOENTIME:MECHANIZATOIOFFNISSIONCALCULATIO.N...S.......................63
2.4. THEEMERGENOCFELABOR-SAVI~NCG~OLOGY..................................................................76
2.5. WARTIMMEISSIONLO: SALAMOESSTABLISHAENSAPPROACTOHPROBLEM-SOLV..I.N...G...............79
2.6. ~OM~DTO ~C ............................................................................................................83
2.7. NEWLIFEFOROLDMODELSE:STABLISHILNOGSALAMOSP’SOSTWAMRISSIO..N...........................94
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................99
THE SUPER AND POSTWAR COMPUTING: MACHINES CAN CALCULATE, BUT
CAN HUMANS.?....................................................................................99
3.1. FERMAINDTHEFUSIONWEAPONO:RIGINOSFT= SUPER.......................................................101
3.2. NOSUPERFORWART1wLOSfiAMOS..................................................................................105
3.3. ENTERVONNEUMAN...N..................................................................................................117
3.4. POSTWAERXODUSO,THETRHERMONUCLCERAERATUR.E..S....................................................l24
3.5. coMPumRsoFTmwTuW...............................................................................................l29
3.6. TAMINAGNDwCHANIZImNRGGEANIM~SH: IPPOANDBABYHIPPO......................................l33
3.7. MONTCEARLO................................................................................................................137
3.8. ADVANmWDmPONSO.RALARGE``BANG...'.'.?...................................................................l38
3.9. WHATDOMACHINKESNOWANYWAYR?E-EVALUATITNHGEENIACCALCULATIO...N...S.............143
4.0. AFAMLYoFwAmNs......................................................................................................l5o
4.1. Greenhouse.................................................................................................................l56
vii
4.2. THETHERMONUCLzEoAoR...............................................................................................l58
4.3. mGmTuMDmwuRsT....................................................................................................l64
4.4. computingINNucLEAWR APoNsscXENc..E.......................................................................l67
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................. 174
MAKINGLIGHT OF THE LIGHT ELEMENTS............................................. 174
4.1. DETECTINTGRITIUM........................................................................................................176
4.2. cYmoTRoNosRmAHoRs?..............................................................................................l82
4.3. PRODUCTIsOYNsm .......................................................................................................l84
4.4. PRAcTIcABmINmsTIGATIoBNuTAFmTAsTIcvENTum......................................................l88
4.5. GLITC~SINT= SYS~M..................................................................................................195
4.6. MCMAHOBNO,RDENA,NDAPR~RAMOFAECEXPANSI..O..N..................................................2~
4.7. cANBERmLEYPRoDuaTRITIuM..?...................................................................................2O5
4.8. THEPROBLEOMFATTAININAGNUCLEARREACTIOINNVOLVINTHGELIGHETLEMEN.T...S.............217
4.9. GREAPTROGRESINSsHowINLGAcKoFKNoWEDG.E............................................................224
5.0. COMPRESSIOOFNTHEISSUESA,NDCIRCUMVENTTIHNEGTRITIUMPROBLE.M..............................226
5.1. ONETECHNOLOOGRYANOTHETRH: ESYSTEMWASNOTREADYFORANH-BOM.B.......................233
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................. 238
FISSION BEFORE FUSION AND THE RARITY OF ATOMS........................... 238
5.1. PRIMARNYuMBER..s........................................................................................................24O
5.2. AToMIcscARcIToYRsEcMcYoFTmPoswARsTocKPm.E...................................................245
5.3. MmmARYmDFoRANH.BoMB..?.....................................................................................253
5.4. AHONEYOAFDESIGNPROBLE~MD DELIVER..Y..................................................................256
5.5. w. HAvEwLTHEGooDmNGom?............................................................................262
5.6. HUMAVNERSUMS ACHIMLABOR.......................................................................................264
5.7. BACKTOTHEENIA.C........................................................................................................267
5.8. COMPETITIWONITHTHFEISSIONPROGRA..M.........................................................................275
5.9. THERMONUCLFEMALRouT..............................................................................................277
6.0. SYSTEMERRORSH: uMANAsMoNGTHEcRITIcPMRoBLEM..s.................................................28l
CHAPTER SIX.................................................................................... 287
CONCLUSION: THE SUPER, THE SYSTEM, AND ITS CRITICAL PROBLEMS .287
6.1. TwMosTcoMPLExPHYsIcAPLRoBLEM..............................................................................292
6.2. GIvEusTHIsWmNANDW'LL RuLET~wowD .............................................................3O3
6.3. SUGGESTIOFNOSRFURTHESRTUDYT: HERUSSIALNOSALAMOASNDSTALINT’SECHNOLOGICAL
SYS=M.........................................................................................................................308
6.4. MoMsuGGEsmoNFsoRWRTmRsWDY.............................................................................3ll
FIGURE 1..........................................................................................318
FIGURE 2.......................................................................................... 319
FIGURE 3.......................................................................................... 320
APPENDIX A: LIST OF ACRONYMS...................................................... 321
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTE........................................................................ 322
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................. 323
...
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