ICE Manual of Construction Materials, Volume 2 - Metals and Alloys; Polymers; Polymer Fibre Composites in Civil Engineering; Timber; Glass; Non-Conventional Materials; Appendices

515 Pages·2008·22.03 MB·English

by  G. Parke

ICE manual of
construction materials
Volume 2
Metals and alloys; Polymers; Polymer fibre composites in civil engineering;
Timber; Glass; Non-conventional materials; Appendices
Editor:
Mike Forde
University of Edinburgh
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Contents
Volume II Copperalloys 506
Brass 507
Listofcontributors ix Surfacetreatments 507
Bronze 509
SECTION5: Metalsandalloys Applicationsforcopperandcopperalloys 510
Sectioneditor: WeiSha Corrosion 514
Compatibility 515
Chapter38: Metalsandalloys: anintroduction 465 Sustainability 517
WeiSha References 518
Metalsandalloysasconstructionmaterials 465 Furtherreading 518
Microstructureandpropertiesofmetalsandalloys 465
Chapter43: Zinc 519
Sustainabilityandrecycling 467
A.Lyons
Sectioncontentsandauthors 467
Introduction 519
Reference 468
Resources 519
Chapter39: Thenatureandbehaviourofalloys 469 Production 519
J.Robson Properties 519
Introduction 469 Softsolders 524
Microstructureofmetalsandalloys 469 Sustainabilityandrecyclingofzinc 524
Phasetransformations 469 Zincasatraceelement 524
Defectsinmetalsandalloys 470 Furtherinformation 524
Plasticdeformationofmetalsandalloys 471 References 524
Strengtheningofmetalsandalloys 472 Furtherreading 525
Othermechanicalproperties 473 Chapter44: Titanium 527
Processingandformingofmetals 474 N.Lowrie
Physicalpropertiesofmetalsandalloys 474 Sourcesandproduction 527
Corrosionofmetals 475 Titaniumalloycategorisation 529
Alloyselection 476 Mechanicalpropertiesoftitaniumalloys 531
Keypoints 476 Corrosionresistance 532
References 476 Titaniuminconstruction 532
Furtherreading 477 Emergingtechnologies 536
Reference 536
Chapter40: Ferrousmetals 479
Furtherreading 536
A.Lyons
Introduction 479 Chapter45: Structuralsteel 537
Castiron 479 R.M.Lawson
Wroughtiron 481 Introduction 537
Steel 482 Technicalcharacteristicsofsteel 540
References 490 Structuralsteel 544
Furtherreading 491 Stainlesssteel 551
Stripsteelspecification 555
Chapter41: Aluminium 493 Corrosionprotection 557
D.A.Harris Fireprotection 562
Introduction 493 Siteinstallation 564
Aluminiumalloys 493 Tolerances 567
Aluminiumfinishingprocesses 496 References 568
Examplesoftheuseofaluminiumproductsinconstruction 498
Recyclingofaluminiumusedinconstruction 500 SECTION6: Polymers
Sustainabilityofaluminiumusedinconstruction 501 Sectioneditor: ChristopherHall
Summaryandfuturetrends 502
Chapter46: Polymericmaterials: anintroduction 571
References 502
V.Koutsos
Furtherreading 502
Introduction 571
Chapter42: Copper 505 Definitions,structureandtypes 571
P.WebsterandN.Hay Specificexamplesandchemicalstructure 573
Introduction 505 Thepolymersolidstate 575
ICEManualofConstructionMaterials#2009InstitutionofCivilEngineers www.icemanuals.com v
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References 577 Qualityassessment 638
Bibliography–Furtherreading 577 Futuretrends 639
References 639
Chapter47: Polymerengineering 579
C.Hall Chapter54: MechanicalpropertiesofFRPcomposites 641
Introduction 579 T.Yu,J.G.TengandJ.F.Chen
Polymerisationreactions 579 Introduction 641
Compoundingofpolymers 580 Micromechanicsofalamina 641
Processingmethods 580 Stress–strainrelationshipofalamina 643
Composites 580 Classicallaminationtheory 645
Cellularpolymers 581 Additionalinformation 647
Sheet,meshandgrid 581 References 647
Emulsionsandgels 581
Chapter55: FailurecriteriaforFRPcomposites 649
Coatingsandpaints 581
T.Yu,J.G.TengandJ.F.Chen
Reference 583
Introduction 649
Furtherreading 583
Failurecriteriaforalamina 649
Chapter48: Engineeringpropertiesofpolymers 585 Failureanalysisofalaminate 651
V.Koutsos 585 Interlaminarfailureofalaminate 652
Introduction 585 Additionalinformation 653
Mechanicalproperties 585 References 653
Thermalproperties 589
Chapter56: Codesandstandards 655
Permeability 589
G.SimsandW.R.Broughton
Environmentalresistanceanddurability 590
Introduction 655
References 591
Polymercomposites–materialstandards 655
Bibliography–Furtherreading 591
Productstandards 659
Chapter49: Polymerusesincivilengineering 593 Designguidesforcompositesinconstruction 662
C.Hall Futuretrends 664
Introduction 593 References 664
Structuralplasticsandcomposites 593 Appendix:Otherstandardsandcodes 664
Pipework 593 Furtherreading 665
Membranesandgeosynthetics 594
Chapter57: AdhesivesforexternallybondedFRPreinforcement 667
Coatings 595
A.Hutchinson
Adhesivesandsealants 596
Introduction 667
Expansionbearingsandanti-vibrationmounts 596
Adhesivebondingtechnology 667
Chemicalgroutsforsoils 596
Surfacepreparation 669
References 597
Strengtheningofconcrete,metallicandtimberstructuresusing
Furtherreading 597
pre-curedcomposites 669
SECTION7: Polymerfibrecompositesincivilengineering Strengtheningofstructuresusingin-situlaminationtechniques 672
Sectioneditor: LenHollaway Summaryandfuturetrends 672
References 672
Chapter50: Polymerfibrecomposites: anIntroduction 599
Chapter58: Applicationsoffibre-reinforcedpolymer
L.C.Hollaway
compositematerials 675
Introduction 599
L.C.Hollaway
Thedevelopmentoffibre/matrixcompositesinconstruction 600
Introduction 675
References 601
Thebuildingindustry 676
Chapter51: Characterisationoffibreandmatrixmaterialsused Thecivilengineeringindustry 676
inconstruction 603 References 689
L.C.Hollaway Appendix:Designcodes,codesandspecificationsforthedesign
Introduction 603 ofFRPcompositesinstructuralengineering 692
Thematricesforfibre-reinforcedpolymercomposites 603
Chapter59: RecyclingofFRPmaterialsinconstruction 695
Thephysicalpropertiesofthermosettingpolymers 607
S.Halliwell
In-servicepropertiesofthethermosettingpolymers 609
Introduction 695
Themechanicalpropertiesofthethermosettingpolymers 610
Legislation 695
Thefibre 611
Wasteminimisation 697
Mechanicalpropertiesoffibres 615
ReuseofFRPmaterials 697
In-serviceproperties 615
RecoveryofFRPwaste 698
References 617
Recyclingtechnologies 698
Chapter52: Advancedpolymercomposites 619 Disposal 702
L.C.Hollaway Futureandemergingtechnologies 702
Introduction 619 Summary 703
Thepropertiesofcompositematerial 619 References 704
MechanicalpropertiesofFRPcomposites 623 Furtherreading 704
Thein-servicepropertiesofpolymercomposites 626
FutureworkonFRPmaterials 630 SECTION8: Timber
References 630 Sectioneditor: KeithCrews
Firecodesandstandards 632
Chapter60: Timberengineering: anintroduction 707
Chapter53: Testingandevaluationofpolymercomposites 633 A.Harte
W.R.BroughtonandG.D.Sims Introduction 707
Introduction 633 Basicpropertiesofwood 707
Tension 633 Physicalpropertiesofwood 709
Compression 635 Mechanicalpropertiesofwood 710
Shear 636 Sustainability 714
Flexure 637 References 715
Fracturetoughness 638 Furtherreading 715
vi www.icemanuals.com ICEManualofConstructionMaterials#2009InstitutionofCivilEngineers
Contents ice |manuals
Chapter61: Timberproductsandmanufacturingprocesses 717 Chapter68: Productiontechniques–abriefhistory 793
F.Lam J.Colvin
Introduction 717 Rawmaterials,meltingandannealing 793
Roundwood 717 Romanwindowglass 794
Timberorlumber 717 Cylinderglass 794
Engineeredwoodproducts 720 Crownglass 794
Conclusion 725 Sheetglass 794
References 726 Plateglass 795
Furtherreading 726 Rolledglass 795
Wiredglass 795
Chapter62: Effectsofmoisture 727
Floatglass 795
H.Bier
Multipleglazing 796
Introduction 727
Laminatedglass 798
Waterandwood 727
Toughenedglass 800
Shrinkageandswelling 729
Heat-strengthenedglass 801
Water,woodanddurability 732
Heatsoakedtoughenedglass 801
Constructionpractices 732
Enamelledglass 802
Conclusions 737
Coatedglass 804
References 737
Fire-resistantglass 806
Chapter63: Understandingtimberstructuralconnectionsystems 739
J.BroughtonandJ.Custo´dio Chapter69: Strengthanddurabilityofglass 807
Overviewofconnectiontypes 739 C.Jofeh
Mechanicalconnections 739 Introduction 807
Gluedconnections 744 Physicalpropertiesofglass,comparedwithothermaterials 807
Adhesivestypes 747 Durability 807
References 756 Designapproaches 808
Furtherreading 759 Safety 809
Chapter64: Hazards,specificationandservicelifeperformance 761 Fallingglass 810
J.-W.vandeKuilen Rulesofthumb 810
Introduction 761 Laminatedglass 811
Hazardtypes 761 Thebucklingoflaminatedglass 812
Timberspecification 765 Insulatingglassunits 812
Applicationclasses 766 Concludingremarks 812
Strengthgradesandclasses 767 References 812
Surfacefinishesandsizes 769 Furtherreading 813
Servicelifeperformanceanddesignfordurability 769
Examples 770 Chapter70: Commonglassproducts 815
References 771 J.Colvin
BasicglasstoEN572 815
Chapter65: Casestudies: currentusesoftimberintheUK 773 Annealedglass 815
J.Bregulla ToughenedglasstoBSEN12150 816
Introduction 773 Heat-strengthenedglasstoBSEN1863 816
Casestudy1: the‘Lighthouse’ 773 Heat-soakedtoughenedglasstoBSEN14179 817
Whytimber? 774 Enamelledglass 817
Casestudy2: multi-storeytimberstructures 776 LaminatedglasstoBSENISO12543andBSEN14449 817
Casestudy3: SavillBuilding,WindsorGreatPark 779 CoatedglasstoBSEN1096 818
Summary 782 InsulatingglassunitstoBSEN1279 819
References 782 Fire-resistantglasstoBSEN357 819
SECTION9: Glass
Chapter71: Characteristicsandproblemsofglassproducts 821
Sectioneditor: ChrisJofeh
J.Colvin
Chapter66: Glassinconstruction: anintroduction 783 Generalglassdefects 821
J.Colvin Annealedglass 821
Lightrelief 783 Clearfloatglass 822
Rationalityormystique 783 Toughenedglassandheatstrengthenedglass 822
Definitionofglass 783 Coatedglass 824
Sustainabilityandrecycling 784 Laminatedglass 824
Furtherreading 784 Insulatingglassunits 825
BritishStandardsrelatingtoglassinbuildings 827
Chapter67: Whatisglass? 785
J.Colvin
Silicateglass 785 SECTION10: Non-conventionalmaterials
Glassasamaterial 785 Sectioneditor: PeterWalker
Stressandstrain 786
Homogeneityandisotropy 787 Chapter72: Low-carbonnaturalbuildingmaterials 831
Theeffectoftheglassstructureonitsproperties 787 P.Walker
Tensilestrengthlevels 787 Introduction 831
Surfaceflaws 787 Earthasabuildingmaterial 832
Scratches,shells,chipsandvents 788 Buildingwithlime 839
Glassandwater 788 Hemp-limebuilding 841
Staticfatigue 788 Otherrenewablematerialsinconstruction 843
Glassstrengthtesting 789 Carbonbenefitsofrenewablematerials 845
Compressivestrength 789 Futurepotential 846
Toughenedglass 789 Acknowledgements 846
Fracture 790 References 846
References 792 Furtherreading 847
ICEManualofConstructionMaterials#2009InstitutionofCivilEngineers www.icemanuals.com vii
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Chapter73: Strawbaleconstruction–stateoftheart 849 Chapter75: Architecturalfabrics 873
M.Offin,S.VardyandC.MacDougall W.Lewis
Introduction 849 Introduction 873
Constructiondetails 850 Fabricstructureandproperties 873
Performanceofstrawbaleassemblies 854 Patterning 876
Plasterstructuralperformance 854 Maincategoriesofarchitecturalfabrics 876
Individualbalestructuralperformance 855 Factorstoconsiderinthechoiceoffabric 882
Balewallstructuralperformance 855 Futuretrends 884
Casestudy–the4C’sfoodbankandthriftstore(adaptedfrom References 884
Vardyetal.,2006) 857
Thefutureofstrawbaleconstruction 858
References 859
APPENDICES
Chapter74: Alternativematerialsforconstruction 861 AppendixA: Fireperformanceofcommonlyusedbuilding
S.AghedoandC.Baillie materials 887
Introduction 861 D.Hopkin
Sourceofnaturalfibres 861 Introduction 887
Sourcesofwasteplastic 862 References 893
Developmentofhempfibre/balewrapcompositesforconstruction 863 Furtherreading 893
Harvesting,rettingandextractionofhemp 864
Wasteplasticpreparationprocess 864
AppendixB: Guidetotherecycledcontentofmainstream
Fabricationofcomposites 864
constructionproducts: Waste&ResourcesAction
Mechanicalpropertiesofhempfibrecomposites 866
Programme(WRAP) 895
Moisture-resistancepropertiesofhempfibrecomposites 869
Introduction 895
Examplesofbuildingproducts 870
Conclusion 870
References 870 IndextovolumeIandII 899
viii www.icemanuals.com ICEManualofConstructionMaterials#2009InstitutionofCivilEngineers
Section 5: Metals and alloys
Section editor: Wei Sha
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Chapter 38 doi:10.1680/mocm.35973.0465
Metals and alloys: an introduction
CONTENTS
Metalsandalloysas
WeiShaSchoolofPlanning,ArchitectureandCivilEngineering,Queen’sUniversityBelfast,Belfast,UK constructionmaterials 465
Microstructureandproperties
ofmetalsandalloys 465
This chapter introduces metals and alloys as a type of construction material, including
discussions of their background and use in construction, their mechanical and Sustainabilityandrecycling 467
physical properties, microstructural factors that influence properties, and recycling and Sectioncontentsandauthors 467
sustainability issues associated with metals and alloys. It references chapters in the Reference 468
Metals and Alloys Section of the Manual of Construction Materials and gives a brief
overview of the coverage in order to point readers towards those chapters. The
chapter serves as a starting point to a practitioner researching the properties and
usefulness of metals and alloys to construction applications.
Metals and alloys as construction non-ferrous metals and alloys has been more rapid than
materials that of iron and steel, although this is mainly to catch up
with rather than replace the ferrous metals.
In terms of volume or weight, metals and alloys as con-
struction materials are well behind concrete. However, Microstructure and properties of
their strength, ductility, toughness, surface properties,
metals and alloys
weldability, electrical and thermal conductivity, and many
other properties unique to this group of materials, make
Microstructural defects and their
metals and alloys indispensible materials for construction.
relations to strength and ductility
These materials are used in houses and other buildings,
structural steelwork including buildings, bridges, offshore Thepropertiesofmetalsandalloyswhichareuniquetothis
structuresandpiling,roadstructures,anddoesnotrequire group of materials, as opposed to say ceramics and poly-
the extensive machinery necessary for completing any mers are due to their microstructure, starting from the
major construction project, for example cranes, trucks small, atomic scale of metallic bonds, up to their grain
and concrete mixers. and phase structures, usually in the micrometre scale,
Avarietyofmetalsareused.Thepredominanttypeis,of hence the term microstructure. In metals, there are free
course, the ferrous metals, i.e. iron and steel. Within this electrons shared by many atoms, as against the ionic
type, there are cast iron, wrought iron, carbon steels and bond or covalent bond in ceramics and polymers. Such
alloy steels, differentiated mainly by their composition. free electrons are the cause of the metals’ electrical and
Among them, carbon steels form the basis of structural thermal conductivity. This unique type of bonding also
steelwork as well as concrete reinforcing bars, and thus determines the high strength and ductility of metals and
are used in the largest quantity among all types of metals. alloys.
Although metals were used extensively from ancient In materials science, materials are broadly divided into
times, as indicated by history terminologies such as the structural materials and functional materials. The applica-
BronzeandIronAge,thescaleoftheirusewasdramatically tion of the first group is based on the material strength,
increased with the modern steelmaking technology. whileforthesecondgroupitisbasedonelectricalandelec-
Although the development of steelmaking technology has tronic, magnetic and optical properties. The most widely
stabilisedinthelastfewdecades,theprocessingtechniques used properties of metals and alloys for construction
forsteelsaswellasforironhavecontinuedtodevelopand purposes are their strength and ductility, for the so-called
improve to great effect, including thermomechanical structural materials. In physical metallurgy and materials
processing, heat treatment, and surface engineering. science, the strength and ductility are explained mainly
Among the non-ferrous metals, aluminium, zinc, lead, with two microstructural terms, namely grain structures
copper and tin are traditionally widely used. Less widely and dislocation structures.
usedarenickelandchromium.Therearealsonewmetallic Microscopically, with the exception of amorphous
materials for construction, for example titanium for clad- materials not normally used in construction, a piece of
ding purposes. Although far from widely used, titanium metal is packed with small crystals, although the exterior
offers an attractive alternative, due mainly to its aesthetic of the metal does not normally show features of crystal
features and corrosion resistance. The development of that we normally associate with geological minerals. The
ICEManualofConstructionMaterials#2009InstitutionofCivilEngineers www.icemanuals.com 465
Metalsandalloys
P M
Burgers vector
Q N
P
P
Burgers
M vector M
Q
Q
N
N
Figure1 Thelatticearrangementsofedge(topright)andscrew(bottomright)dislocationscomparedtoperfectcrystalstructures
reason why we cannot see the crystals (or even signs of locations (but not too many because then they will tangle
them) with the naked eye is because they are very tiny, up and be hard to move), plastic deformation becomes
usually around the scale of 10(cid:1)6m (one micrometre) but easier because, instead of moving the whole crystal planes
they could be manipulated by special treatment to down in one go, it is much easier to push each dislocation to
to 10(cid:1)9m (one nanometre). Recent research has resulted move. This is very similar to moving carpets by first
in the development of nanostructures in bulk metallic forming a kink, and then pushing the kink from one end
materials (Bhadeshia, 2005). of the carpet to another. Worms move in the same way,
These tiny crystals are packed densely with no gaps too.
betweenthem,andareonlyseparatedbygrainboundaries. The deformation mechanism through the movement of
Thegrainboundarieshavesignificanteffectsonmetalprop- dislocations is the reason why metals have good ductility.
erties such as strength, ductility, atom diffusion and Grain boundaries, on the other hand, limit the movement
conductivity. ofdislocationsbecauseitisnotalwayseasyfordislocations
For the perfect crystal structure to deform plastically, totraverseacrossthem.Bycontrollingthequantityandsize
extremely large forces are required, in order for the of the grain boundaries and dislocations, virtually un-
atomic planes to slide against each other. Imagine even limited range of property combinations can be achieved.
the force required to pull from one end and slide a large Agrainboundarycausedbythediscontinuityofcrystals
carpet on a floor, in one single movement. The friction is a 2D defect, and a dislocation caused by atomic plane
force between the carpet and the floor is huge. The sliding misalignment is a 1D defect. In addition to 1D and 2D
of atomic planes has similar difficulties, only a million defects, there are 0D defects, the so-called point defects,
times harder because of the tight bonding between atoms usually in the form of vacancies, i.e. lattice spots, but not
next to each other in adjacent atomic planes. In real occupied by any atom. The vacancies determine the rate
metals, however, there is a common type of defect called of diffusion because metal atoms diffuse by jumping into
dislocations (Figure 1) that completely change the an adjacent vacancy. There are 3D defects, too, in the
mechanism of plastic deformation. form of inclusion and precipitation for example, which
Dislocations appear in large numbers in metals and weakens or strengthens the metallic materials depending
alloys, some formed naturally during cooling after melting on their characteristics. As it transpires, atomic and
during the alloy manufacture, and some formed during micro-scale defects in metals are far more important and
deformation processing such as rolling and forging, and useful than the perfect crystal structure.
some even formed during the plastic deformation process The physical metallurgy and materials science of metals
which is facilitated by them in the first place. With dis- and alloys are described in many metallurgy textbooks. A
466 www.icemanuals.com ICEManualofConstructionMaterials#2009InstitutionofCivilEngineers
Metalsandalloys:anintroduction
comprehensivesourceofinformationformetalsistheASM adds a significant amount of cost. In recent years, there
HandbookseriespublishedbyASMInternational.Forfree have been large advances in fire engineering research and
onlineinformation,theWikipedia(http://en.wikipedia.org) development, resulting in some reduction of fire protec-
contains many relevant articles, although they may not be tion cost in structural steelwork.
as authoritative.
Corrosion and fire resistance Sustainability and recycling
The most commonly used metals, i.e. structural steels, are Metals and alloys are champions in the race towards
one order of magnitude stronger than concrete, and even maximum sustainability and recycling. In principle, all
much stronger than other construction materials such as metals and alloys can be recycled, usually up towards
timber and bitumen. However, some other properties of 100%, although in practice, this may be achieved only
metals and alloys also contribute, or sometimes limit their with considerable cost.
use in the construction industry. Thefundamentalreasonfortheexcellentrecyclabilityof
One such property is corrosion. Most metals react with this class of materials is, in the author’s view, that metals
oxygen, i.e. they are oxidised in air. When moisture is originally appear in earth not in their pure form but in
present, e.g. under water or in a high humidity environ- compound form with, for instance, oxygen, i.e. oxides.
ment, the combined effect of water and oxygen can cause These are ores. Metals need to be extracted from the ores,
corrosion. This is a major problem for structural steels, i.e. separated from the compounded or mixed elements,
and a high proportion of construction cost of structural which is a long and costly process. After a metal is used,
steelwork is on corrosion prevention. However, other if it has changed from its pure state, it may be contami-
metals, such as aluminium, titanium and stainless steel, nated, or mixed or compounded with other materials, it
have means of overcoming the corrosion problem, by may be corroded or rusted and it may be oxidised.
forming a thin and stable protective layer on their surface. However, in principle, the goal of returning such used, or
The prevention or minimisation of corrosion does not non-pure metal to its pure form (i.e. from old to new) is
always rely on using non-metals which do not have corro- fundamentally no different from extracting the metal
sion problems themselves, such as polymer-based paints. from ore. The process may be very different however, but
One of the most effective anti-corrosion measures is to it is in many cases cheaper. This, plus the pressure from
use zinc and, to a lesser extent, aluminium, two of the the vanishing resources that we are facing, make the idea
most active metals. There is a wide variety of protection of recycling metals very attractive.
techniques based on the galvanising action between zinc/ One major example is the use of the electric arc furnace
aluminium and steels, because zinc/aluminium, when in for steel making. This process uses scrap steel as its raw
contact with steels, will corrode first and in fact eliminate material, and produces high-quality alloy steels, for
the corrosion of steels. Such techniques include zinc examplestainlesssteel,aproductusedheavilyforconstruc-
(alloy)galvanising,metalsprayingandpaintingcontaining tion. The process has been in use for more than 100 years,
zinc or aluminium. Metals can be used to protect other long, long before the word ‘sustainability’ was invented.
metals. This was because metallurgists and steel users knew the
Another consideration, usually to the disadvantage of recyclabilityofsteels,andthevalueofit.Thissameexample
using metals in construction, in particular structural alsoillustratesthecostfactormentionedabove,becausean
steels, is related to the properties of metals at high electric arc furnace operates with a high consumption of
temperatures, for example in a fire. The reason for the electricity, and the cost of running it is higher than the
usually relatively poor metal performance at elevated other route of steel making, the basic oxygen furnace,
temperatures is related to its metallic bond. The high which does not use scrap steel as the main source of raw
thermal conductivity is as important as the loss of material. Despite the cost factor, a higher and higher frac-
strength itself, because it permits heat to reach and spread tion of metals and alloys is being recycled, due to environ-
over metal parts quickly. This is a particular issue for mental regulations and sustainability issues and concerns.
structural steelwork, the issue of its fire resistance.
Although the concrete strength would have dropped even
Section contents and authors
more heavily at a given temperature than steel, the low
thermal conductivity and the bulkiness of the concrete This section of the ICE Manual of Construction Materials
mean that a concrete structure does not usually have any gives detailed information on the class of materials of
fire resistance problem, simply because the heat does not metals and alloys. Before dealing with individual types,
reach the inside of concrete. On the other hand, structural thesectionstartswithdescribingthenatureandbehaviour
steelwork, with some exceptions of, for example, open car ofalloys,whichessentiallycoversbasicmetallurgy,needed
park structures, will always need fire protection, which forunderstandingandappreciatingthepropertiesofmetals
ICEManualofConstructionMaterials#2009InstitutionofCivilEngineers www.icemanuals.com 467