Table Of ContentSTANDARD LEVEL SL S L
Environmental
Environmental
B
A
P
C
Systems and Societies CE
AA
L Systems and
AR
US
R
O
E
AN
Societies
DEVELOPED SPECIFICALLY FOR THE T
P E A R S O N E
BACCALAUREATE IB DIPLOMA
Interactive
P E A R S O N e-book also
Pearson Baccalaureate Environmental Systems and Societies
SE BACCALAUREATE available
Andrew Davis teaches at St Edward’s School,
is a comprehensive textbook, covering all seven topics from the yn
course, along with advice on Internal Assessment, the Extended Oxford, where he introduced the IB ESS sv
course and is the Head of Environmental ti
Essay, and links to Theory of Knowledge. It will help you to er
Science. Andrew worked in South East Asia mo
prepare thoroughly and methodically for your examinations. for 10 years as part of the Royal Society’s n
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Rainforest Research Programme, examining
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• Written by experienced IB teachers. the effects of rainforest disturbance on e
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• Detailed diagrams and photographs help to explain key insect communities. He has published many
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concepts. articles on his insect work and maintains a
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an active interest in tropical ecology and l
• Practice questions from past examination papers help you o
conservation.
with exam preparation. c
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• Clear links to Theory of Knowledge throughout. Garrett Nagle has taught at St Edward’s e
• Provides guidance on Internal Assessment and the Extended School Oxford since 1986. He has been ti
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an IB examiner and moderator since 2004
Essay. s
and has been involved in over 50 textbooks
• Written to give you an international and transdisciplinary
and numerous articles. He is currently an
perspective. D
examiner, team leader, question setter, and E
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• Additional online materials to support and extend your E
workshop leader on IB related topics, as well L
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studies. as an Assistant Principal Examiner. He was PE
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• With integrated online learning resources at Head of Geography at St. Edward’s School B S
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www.pearsonbacconline.com, to support and extend study. from 1988-2001 and is Chairman of the D ECI
Oxford Geographical Association. I FIC
P A
There are many more titles in the Pearson Baccalaureate series. L LL
Y
Visit www.pearsonbaccalaureate.com for a complete list. O FO
M R
T
A H
E
www.pearsonbaccalaureate.com
ANDREW DAVIS GARRETT NAGLE With integrated online learning resources!
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CVR_ESSSL_SB_IBD_2630_CVR.indd 1 05/09/2012 14:25
P E A R S O N
BACCALAUREATE
Environmental
Systems and
Societies
ANdREw dAviS gARRETT NAgLE
00_Prelims.indd 1 05/09/2012 14:07
Pearson Education Limited is a company incorporated in England and Wales, having its registered office at
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Acknowledgements
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Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders and we apologise in advance for any unintentional
omissions. We would be pleased to insert the appropriate acknowledgement in any subsequent edition of this
publication.
The assessment statements, assessment information and many practice questions have been reproduced from
IBO documents and past examination papers. Our thanks go to the International Baccalaureate Organization for
permission to reproduce its intellectual copyright.
This material has been developed independently by the publisher and the content is in no way connected to with
nor endorsed by the International Baccalaureate Organization.
Dedications
For my mother, and in memory of my father, Brian Davis, who is remembered here.
With thanks to my colleagues in the Department of Biology at St Edward’s for their friendship and support –
Lucy Baddeley, Lewis Faulkner, Kate Kettlewell, Jo Shindler, Al Summers, Helen Warden and Kendall Williams;
to John Grahame who taught me ecology at Leeds, and Stephen Sutton who introduced me to the world of
rainforests and conservation for which I am eternally grateful; to friends and colleagues at Danum Valley who
taught me more about ecology than can be read about in textbooks; to Jane McNicholl and Sue Lees who were my
way into teaching; to Lily French, Chris Hatton, Amy Hicks and Lydia Smith who together pioneered the course at
St Edward’s and whose input is contained here; and to all my pupils over the years who have taught me much.
This book is for my mother, who has taught me most of all.
Andrew J Davis
To Angela, Rosie, Patrick and Bethany
With thanks to staff and students at St Edward’s School and to Angela, Rosie, Patrick and Bethany for their
patience and good humour.
Garrett E Nagle
00_Prelims.indd 3 17/09/2012 15:10
CONTENTS
Introduction vi
1: Systems and models 1
1.1 Concepts and characteristics of systems 1
Practice questions 12
2: The ecosystem 14
2.1 Structure 14
2.2 Measuring abiotic components of the system 24
2.3 Measuring biotic components of the system 29
2.4 Biomes 35
2.5 Function 43
2.6 Changes 55
2.7 Measuring changes in the system 73
Practice questions 80
3: Human populations, carrying capacity and resource use 83
3.1 Population dynamics 83
3.2 Resources – natural capital 96
3.3 Energy resources 108
3.4 The soil system 122
3.5 Food resources 135
3.6 Water resources 146
3.7 Limits to growth 152
3.8 Environmental demands of human populations 160
Practice questions 173
4: Conservation and biodiversity 175
4.1 Biodiversity in ecosystems 175
4.2 Evaluating biodiversity and vulnerability 187
4.3 Conservation of biodiversity 202
Practice questions 214
5: Pollution management 217
5.1 Nature of pollution 217
5.2 Detection and monitoring of pollution 219
5.3 Approaches to pollution management 223
5.4 Eutrophication 230
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CONTENTS
5.5 Solid domestic waste 238
5.6 Depletion of stratospheric ozone 242
5.7 Urban air pollution 249
5.8 Acid deposition 253
Practice questions 258
6: The issue of global warming 261
6.1 The greenhouse effect 261
Practice questions 280
7: Environmental value systems 283
7.1 Environmental value systems and philosophies 283
Practice questions 298
8: Theory of knowledge 300
Overall assessment 316
Internal assessment 319
Advice on the Extended essay 323
Advice on examination strategies 328
Appendix: Basic statistics and data analysis 331
Additional practice questions for Chapters 2 and 3 352
Answers 360
Glossary 378
Index 384
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INTRODUCTION
Content
Welcome to Environmental systems and societies (ESS). We hope you enjoy the course.
This book is designed to be a comprehensive course book, covering all aspects of the
syllabus. It will help you prepare for your examinations in a thorough and methodical
way as it follows the syllabus outline section by section, explaining and expanding on the
material in the course syllabus. Each chapter deals with one topic from the syllabus and,
within each chapter, the main sections are numbered and named as in the syllabus. This
makes the book readily accessible for use and reference throughout the course. There are
also short chapters explaining overall assessment and internal assessment (IA) and offering
advice on writing the Extended Essay (EE) and developing exam strategies. In addition,
there is an appendix on basic statistics and data analysis. And after the answers section, you
will find a glossary of useful terms that have been emboldened in the book.
Links between different parts of the syllabus are emphasized, and key facts essential to
your understanding are highlighted throughout. At the end of each section, you will find
practice questions to test your knowledge and understanding of that part of the course.
You can self-assess your answers using the mark-schemes in the answers section.
The ESS course is the first fully transdisciplinary course within the IB. It covers group 3
(individuals and societies) and group 4 (experimental sciences). As a group 4 subject, it
demands the scientific rigour expected of an experimental science, and has a large practical
component. The group 3 approach balances this with a human-centred perspective which
examines environmental issues from a social and cultural viewpoint. Throughout the
book, you will look at the environment from the perspective of human societies, and assess
their response in the light of the scientific framework used in environmental sciences. The
book therefore looks at environmental issues from economic, historical, cultural, socio-
political viewpoints as well as a scientific one, to provide a holistic perspective.
The aims of the course and this book are to:
• promote understanding of environmental processes at a variety of scales, from local to
global
• provide the methodologies and skills that can be used to analyse the environment at
local and global levels
• enable you to apply the knowledge, methodologies and skills gained
• promote critical awareness of a diversity of cultural perspectives
• recognize the extent to which technology plays a role in both causing and solving
environmental issues
• appreciate the value of local as well as international collaboration in resolving
environmental problems
• appreciate that environmental issues may be controversial, and may provoke a variety of
responses
• appreciate that human society is both directly and indirectly linked to the environment
at a number of levels and at a variety of scales.
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Information boxes
Throughout the book you will see a number of coloured boxes interspersed through each
chapter. They may be in the margins or in the main text area. Each of these boxes provides
different information and stimulus as follows.
Assessment statements
2.1.1 Distinguish between biotic and abiotic (physical) components of an ecosystem.
2.1.2 Define the term trophic level.
You will find a box like this at the start of each section in each chapter. They list the
numbered objectives for the section you are about to read and set out what content and
aspects of learning are covered in that section.
Global warming challenges views of certainty within the sciences. In the popular perception, global
warming is having a negative impact on the world. There is, moreover, some confusion between the
public perception of global warming and the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a natural
process, without which there would be no life on Earth. The enhanced or accelerated greenhouse
effect is synonymous with global warming. The enhanced greenhouse effect is largely due to human
(anthropogenic) forces, although feedback mechanisms may trigger some natural forces, too.
Lobby groups and politicians will take views which suit their own economic and political ends. In
the USA, the strength of the oil companies during the Bush Administration was seen by many as an
example of economic groups, and the politicians they supported, choosing a stance which was not
in the long-term environmental, social or economic interest of the world. But it did benefit the oil The pH scale is logarithmic.
companies and the politicians they supported. This means that pH 6.0 is
10 times more acidic than
In addition to the Theory of Knowledge chapter, there are TOK boxes like this throughout pH 7.0; natural rainwater
at pH 5.6 is about 25 times
the book. These boxes are there to stimulate thought and consideration of any TOK issues
more acidic than distilled
as they arise and in context. Often, they will just contain a question to stimulate your own
water at pH 7.0. Acid rain
thoughts and discussion. is frequently more than
20 times more acidic than
natural rainwater. Rain over
Scandinavia commonly has
The yellow interesting fact boxes contain interesting information which will add to your
a pH of 4.2–4.3.
wider knowledge but which does not fit within the main body of the text.
Rainwater is normally a weak carbonic acid with a pH of about 5.5. Acid rain is a more acidic
substance, due to the addition of sulfur dioxide and the oxides of nitrogen. Any rain with a pH below
5.5 is termed ‘acid rain’.
The green key fact boxes contain key facts which are drawn out of the main text and
To learn more about smog
highlighted. This makes them easily identifiable for quick reference. The boxes also enable
levels in Los Angeles on
you to identify the core learning points within a section. 4 July 2008, go to www.
pearsonhotlinks.com,
Hotlinks boxes direct you to the publisher’s website, which in turn will take you to the insert the express code
2630P and click on activity
relevant website(s). On the web pages there, you will find additional information to
5.21.
support the topic, video simulations, and the like.
Blue online resources boxes indicate that online resources are available that relate to this To access worksheet
section of the book on www.pearsonbacconline.com. These resources might be extension 4.6 on endangered
exercises, additional practice questions, interactive online material, suggestions for IA, EE species, please visit www.
pearsonbacconline.com
and revision, or other sources of information. In addition to these resources, there are new
and follow the on-screen
topical worksheets uploaded every month. Visit www.pearsonbacconline.com to see this instructions.
month’s topic and worksheets from the past year.
vii
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Introduction
The first effects of acid rain were noted in Scandinavian lakes in the 1960s. Over 18 000 lakes in
Sweden are acidified, 4000 of them, are seriously affected. Fish stocks in about 9000 Swedish lakes,
mostly in the south and the centre of the country, are also badly affected. In the Eastern USA and
Canada over 48 000 lakes are too acidic to support fish.
A global perspective is important to the International Baccalaureate. These boxes indicate
examples of internationalism within the area of study. The information given offers you
the chance to think about how Environmental systems and societies fits into the global
landscape.
EnvironmEntal philosophiEs
Ultimately, the choices people make depend on their environmental philosophy. People with an
anthropocentric worldview see the technological possibilities as central to solving environmental
problems. An ecocentric worldview leads to greater caution and a drive to use Earth’s natural
resources in a sustainable way rather than rely on technology to solve the problems.
A central theme of the course is that diverse societies view the environment and
environmental problems in different ways. These environmental philosophies lie on a
spectrum, from cultures that have a life-centred worldview, seeing humans as being heavily
reliant on nature and needing to use the Earth’s resources in a sustainable way (ecocentric),
to those that see nature as being for the benefit of human kind (anthropocentric) where
technology is able to solve environmental problems (a technocentric approach). The cause
and effect of these different environmental philosophies is covered in detail in Chapter 7.
Examiner’s hints Examiner’s hints provide insight into how to answer a question in
Soil pH can be measured using a universal indicator as follows. order to achieve the highest marks in an examination. They also
1 Take a small soil sample from a known depth (horizon) of soil. identify common pitfalls when answering such questions and
2 Place about 1–2 cm of soil in the bottom of a test tube.
suggest approaches that examiners like to see.
3 Add 1–2 cm of barium sulfate (this causes the clay to settle
leaving a clear solution.
4 Fill the tube with distilled water and shake.
5 Add a few drops of universal indicator to clear the solution.
Compare the colour of the liquid to the colour of the chart
provided. The pH can be read off to the nearest 0.5.
CasE study
Fertility in the arab world
The Arab performance in improving women’s health is unmatched. Female life expectancy is up
from 52 years in 1970 to more than 70 years in 2004. The number of children borne by the average
Arab woman has fallen by half in the past 20 years, to a level scarcely higher than world norms.
In Oman, fertility has plummeted from ten births per woman to fewer than four. A main reason
for this is a dramatic rise in the age at which girls marry. A generation ago, three-quarters of Arab
women were married by the time they were 20. That proportion has dropped by half. In large Arab
cities, the high cost of housing, added to the need for women to pursue degrees or start careers, is
prompting many to delay marriage until they are in their 30s.
Case studies are self-contained examples that you can use to answer questions on specific
points. They are usually longer than this example and often contain photographs or other
illustration.
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Approaches to Environmental systems and
societies
Systems approach
The nature of environmental issues demands a holistic treatment. This is why the systems
approach is central to the course. This approach is explained in detail in Chapter 1,
and used throughout this book. Science often uses a reductionist approach to examine
phenomena, breaking a system down into its components and studying them separately.
Environmental science cannot work in this way, as understanding the functioning of
the whole topic (e.g. an ecosystem) is essential (i.e. a holistic approach is needed). The
traditional reductionist approach of science inevitably tends to overlook or understate
this important holistic quality. Furthermore, the systems approach is common to many
disciplines (e.g. economics, geography, politics, and ecology). It emphasizes the similarities
between all these disciplines in the ways in which matter, energy and information
flow, allowing common terminology to be used when discussing different systems and
disciplines. This approach therefore integrates the perspectives of different subjects.
Throughout this book, the integrated nature of this subject is stressed by examining the
links between different areas of the syllabus and between different disciplines.
Sustainability
Sustainability is a term that refers to the use of natural resources in a way that does not
reduce or degrade them, so that they are available for future generations. The concept
of sustainability is central to an understanding of the nature of interactions between
environmental systems and societies. Throughout the book, we look at resource
management issues and show that these are essentially ones of sustainability.
Holistic evaluation
The systems approach used throughout the course, as we have already discussed,
encourages a holistic appreciation of the complexities of environmental issues. The
interaction between environmental systems and societies is central to this holistic approach.
The course requires you to consider the costs and the benefits of human activities, both
to the environment and to societies, over the short and long term. In doing so, you will
arrive at informed personal viewpoints. The book explains how you can justify your
own position, and appreciate the views of others, along a continuum of environmental
philosophies.
Local and global approaches
This course studies environmental systems and societies at a range of scales from local to
global. Inevitably, appreciation of your local environment will enable you to appreciate
these issues from a local perspective, through carrying out field-work in nearby ecosystems
and research on local issues. Certain issues such as resource and pollution management
require a national or regional perspective, and others an international perspective (e.g.
global warming) and the book explores all these perspectives in detail. On a broader
scale, the course naturally leads us to an appreciation of the nature of the international
dimension, since the resolution of the major environmental issues rests heavily on
international relationships and agreements – case studies and key facts are used to illustrate
these points throughout the book.
Now you are ready to start. Good luck with your studies.
ix
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