IAEA Nuclear Energy Series Advances in Airborne and Ground Geophysical Methods for Uranium ...

72 Pages·2013·3.9 MB·English

IAEA Nuclear Energy Series
No. NF-T-1.5
Advances in
Basic
Principles
Airborne and Ground
Geophysical Methods
Objectives
for Uranium Exploration
Guides
Technical
Reports
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY
VIENNA
ISBN 978–92–0–129010–6
ISSN 1995–7807
IAEA NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES PUBLICATIONS
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ADVANCES IN AIRBORNE
AND GROUND GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
FOR URANIUM EXPLORATION
The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency:
AFGHANISTAN GUATEMALA PANAMA
ALBANIA HAITI PAPUA NEW GUINEA
ALGERIA HOLY SEE PARAGUAY
ANGOLA HONDURAS PERU
ARGENTINA HUNGARY
PHILIPPINES
ARMENIA ICELAND
POLAND
AUSTRALIA INDIA
PORTUGAL
AUSTRIA INDONESIA
QATAR
AZERBAIJAN IRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF
BAHRAIN IRAQ REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
BANGLADESH IRELAND ROMANIA
BELARUS ISRAEL RUSSIAN FEDERATION
BELGIUM ITALY RWANDA
BELIZE JAMAICA SAUDI ARABIA
BENIN JAPAN SENEGAL
BOLIVIA JORDAN
SERBIA
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA KAZAKHSTAN
SEYCHELLES
BOTSWANA KENYA
SIERRA LEONE
BRAZIL KOREA, REPUBLIC OF
SINGAPORE
BULGARIA KUWAIT
BURKINA FASO KYRGYZSTAN SLOVAKIA
BURUNDI LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC SLOVENIA
CAMBODIA REPUBLIC SOUTH AFRICA
CAMEROON LATVIA SPAIN
CANADA LEBANON SRI LANKA
CENTRAL AFRICAN LESOTHO SUDAN
REPUBLIC LIBERIA
SWAZILAND
CHAD LIBYA
SWEDEN
CHILE LIECHTENSTEIN
SWITZERLAND
CHINA LITHUANIA
SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC
COLOMBIA LUXEMBOURG
CONGO MADAGASCAR TAJIKISTAN
COSTA RICA MALAWI THAILAND
CÔTE D’IVOIRE MALAYSIA THE FORMER YUGOSLAV
CROATIA MALI REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
CUBA MALTA TOGO
CYPRUS MARSHALL ISLANDS TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
CZECH REPUBLIC MAURITANIA
TUNISIA
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC MAURITIUS
TURKEY
OF THE CONGO MEXICO
UGANDA
DENMARK MONACO
UKRAINE
DOMINICA MONGOLIA
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MONTENEGRO UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
ECUADOR MOROCCO UNITED KINGDOM OF
EGYPT MOZAMBIQUE GREAT BRITAIN AND
EL SALVADOR MYANMAR NORTHERN IRELAND
ERITREA NAMIBIA UNITED REPUBLIC
ESTONIA NEPAL OF TANZANIA
ETHIOPIA NETHERLANDS
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
FIJI NEW ZEALAND
URUGUAY
FINLAND NICARAGUA
UZBEKISTAN
FRANCE NIGER
VENEZUELA
GABON NIGERIA
VIETNAM
GEORGIA NORWAY
GERMANY OMAN YEMEN
GHANA PAKISTAN ZAMBIA
GREECE PALAU ZIMBABWE
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IAEA NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES No. NF-T-1.5
ADVANCES IN AIRBORNE
AND GROUND GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
FOR URANIUM EXPLORATION
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY
VIENNA, 2013
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© IAEA, 2013
Printed by the IAEA in Austria
April 2013
STI/PUB/1558
IAEA Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Advances in airborne and ground geophysical methods for uranium exploration.
— Vienna : International Atomic Energy Agency, 2013.
p. ; 29 cm. — (IAEA nuclear energy series, ISSN 1995–7807 ;
no. NF-T-1.5)
STI/PUB/1558
ISBN 978–92–0–129010–6
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Uranium ores — Geology. 2. Radioactive waste sites — Cleanup.
3. Radiation —Measurement — Instruments. I. International Atomic Energy
Agency. II. Series.
IAEAL 12–00778
FOREWORD
One of the IAEA’s statutory objectives is to “seek to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy
to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world”. One way this objective is achieved is through the publication
of a range of technical series. Two of these are the IAEA Nuclear Energy Series and the IAEA Safety Standards
Series.
According to Article III.A.6 of the IAEA Statute, the safety standards establish “standards of safety for
protection of health and minimization of danger to life and property.” The safety standards include the Safety
Fundamentals, Safety Requirements and Safety Guides. These standards are written primarily in a regulatory style,
and are binding on the IAEA for its own programmes. The principal users are the regulatory bodies in Member
States and other national authorities.
The IAEA Nuclear Energy Series comprises reports designed to encourage and assist R&D on, and
application of, nuclear energy for peaceful uses. This includes practical examples to be used by owners and
operators of utilities in Member States, implementing organizations, academia, and government officials, among
others. This information is presented in guides, reports on technology status and advances, and best practices for
peaceful uses of nuclear energy based on inputs from international experts. The IAEA Nuclear Energy Series
complements the IAEA Safety Standards Series.
According to current estimates, after 2050 available resources and cumulative uranium demand are expected
to be balanced. Recent annual uranium production constitutes 65–75% of annual nuclear energy uranium
requirements worldwide. With typical timeframes of between 15 and 40 years from the commencement of uranium
exploration activities until uranium production, together with increasingly favourable uranium prices, many
countries have seen a rise in uranium exploration activities since 2005. This experience and assessment of global
energy needs support continued uranium exploration through the use of effective exploration techniques.
Geophysical methods with the capability of mapping surface and subsurface parameters in relation to uranium
deposition and accumulation are proving to be vital components of current exploration efforts around the world.
There is continuous development and improvement of technical and scientific disciplines using measuring
instruments and spatially referenced data processing techniques. Newly designed geophysical instruments and their
applications in uranium exploration are contributing to an increased probability of successful discoveries.
Dissemination of information on advances in geophysical techniques encourages new strategies and promotes new
approaches toward uranium exploration. Meetings and conferences organized by the IAEA, collecting the
experience of participating countries, as well as its publications and the International Nuclear Information System,
play an important role in the dissemination of knowledge of all aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle.
The purpose of this report is to highlight advances in airborne and ground geophysical techniques, succinctly
describing modern geophysical methods and demonstrating the application of techniques through examples. The
report also provides some basic concepts of radioactivity, nuclear radiation and interaction with matter.
The IAEA acknowledges the valuable contributions of the consultants in the preparation of this report. The
IAEA officers responsible for this report were J. Slezak and A. Hanly of the Division of Nuclear Fuel Cycle and
Waste Technology.
EDITORIAL NOTE
Although great care has been taken to maintain the accuracy of information contained in this publication, neither the IAEA nor
its Member States assume any responsibility for consequences which may arise from its use.
The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the
legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries.
The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as registered) does not imply any intention to
infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. STATUS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY AROUND THE WORLD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. RADIOACTIVE RAW MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4. URANIUM AND THORIUM DEPOSITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
5. URANIUM EXPLORATION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS FOR URANIUM EXPLORATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6.1. Radiometric methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6.1.1. Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.1.2. Nuclear radiation and interaction with matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.1.3. Radiometric instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.1.4. Quantities and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.1.5. Radioactivity of rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.1.6. Gamma survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.1.7. Radon survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.2. Electrical and electromagnetic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.2.1. Resistivity methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.2.2. Electrochemical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.2.3. Electromagnetic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.2.4. Application of electrical and electromagnetic methods to uranium exploration . . . . . . . . 17
6.3. Gravity prospecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.4. Magnetic prospecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.5. Seismic prospecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6.6. Well logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.7. Remote sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7. ADVANCES IN GEOPHYSICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.1. Advances in radiometric methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.2. Advances in electrical and electromagnetic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.3. Advances in gravity methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.4. Advances in magnetic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.5. Advances in seismic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
8. APPLICATION OF AIRBORNE AND GROUND GEOPHYSICS FOR URANIUM
EXPLORATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
8.1. Review of some IAEA technical meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
8.2. Examples of applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.2.1. Radiometric methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.2.2. Electrical and electromagnetic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.2.3. Gravity prospecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
8.2.4. Magnetic prospecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
8.2.5. Seismic prospecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8.2.6. Well logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
FURTHER READING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
STRUCTURE OF THE IAEA NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58