Hydrological effects of urbanization

278 Pages·2004·21.62 MB·English

Hydrological effects
of urbanization
Report of the Sub-group on the Effects of Urbanization
on the Hydrological Environment,
of the
Co-ordinating Council of the
International Hydrological Decade
Prepared under the chairmanship of
M. B. McPherson
The Unesco Press
Paris 1974
I
Studies and reports in hydrology 18
TITLES IN THIS SERIES
1. The use of analog and digital computers in hydrology: Proceedings of the Tucson Sympo-
sium, June 1966 / L’utilisation des calculatrices analogiques et des ordinateurs en hydro-
logie: Actes du colloque de Tucson, juin 1966. Vol. 1 & 2. Co-edition IAHS-Unesco /
Coédition A I S H -U nesco.
2. Water in the unsaturated zone: Proceedings of the Wageningen Symposium,J une 1967 /
L’eau dans la zone non saturée: Actes du symposium de Wageningen,j uin 1967. Edited
by /Edité par P.E.R ijtema &H .W assink. Vol. 1 &2 . Co-edition IAHS-Unesco / Coédition
A I S H -U nesco.
3. Floods and their computation: Proceedings of the Leningrad Symposium, August 1967 1
Les crues et leur évaluation : Actes du colloque de Leningrad, août 1967. Vol. 1 & 2.
Co-edition IAHS-Unesco-W MO / Coédition A I S H -U nesco.OMM.
4. Representative and experimental basins: A n international guide for research and practice.
Edited by C. Toebes and V. Ouryvaev. Published by Unesco.
4. Les bassins représentatifs et expérimentaux : Guide international des pratiques en matière
de recherche. Publié sous la direction de C. Toebes et V. Ouryvaev. Publié par l’Unesco.
5. *Discharge of selected rivers of the world / Débit de certain cours d’eau du monde.
Published by Unesco / Publié par l‘Unesco.
Vol. I: General and régime characteristics of stations selected / Caractéristiques géné-
rales et caractéristiques du régime des stations choisies.
Vol. II: Monthly and annual discharges recorded at various selected stations (from start
of observations up to 1964) / Débits mensuels et annuels enregistrés en diverses stations
sélectionnées (de l’origine des observations à l’année 1964).
Vol. III: Mean monthly and extreme discharges (1965-1969)/ Débits mensuels moyens
et débits extrêmes (1965-1969).
6. List of International Hydrological Decade Stations of the world / Liste des stations de la
Décennie hydrologique internationale existant dans le monde. Published by Unesco /Publié
par 1’ Unesco.
7. Ground-waters tudies: An international guide for practice. Edited by R. Brown, J. Ineson,
V. Konoplyantsev and V. Kovalevski. (Will also appear in French, Russian and Spanish /
Paraîtra également en espagnol, en français et en russe.)
8. Land subsidence: Proceedings of the Tokyo Symposium, September 1969 / Affaisement du
sol : Actes du colloque de Tokyo, septembre 1969. Vol. 1 &2 . Co-edition IAHS-Unesco 1
Coédition AISH-U nesco.
9. Hydrology of deltas: Proceedings of the Bucharest Symposium,M ay 1969 / Hydrologie des
deltas : Actes du colloque de Bucarest, mai 1969. Vol. 1 & 2. Co-edition IAHS-Unesco /
Coédition AISH-U nesco.
10. Status and trends of research in hydrology / Bilan et tendances de la recherche en hydro-
logie. Published by Unesco / Publié par l’Unesco.
il. World water balance: Proceedings of the Reading Symposium,J uly 1970 / Bilan hydrique
mondial : Actes du colloque de Reading,j uillet 1970. Vol. 1-3. Co-edition IAHS-Unesco-
WMO I Coédition AISH-Unesco-OMM.
12. Results of research on representative and experimental basins:P roceedingso f the Wellington
Symposium, December 1970 / Résultats de recherches sur les bassins représentatifs et
expérimentaux :A ctes du colloque de Wellington, décembre 1970. Vol. 1 & 2. Co-edition
I A H S -U nesco / Coédition A I S H -U nesco.
13. Hydrometry:P roceedings of the Koblenz Symposium,S eptember 1970 / Hydrométrie:A ctes
du colloque de Coblence,s eptembre 1970. Co-edition I A H S -U nesco-W MO / Coédition A I S H
Unesco-OMM.
14. Hydrologic information systems. Co-edition Unesco-W MO.
15. Mathematical models in hydrology: Proceedings of the Warsaw Symposium, July 19711
Les modèles mathématiques en hydrologie : Actes du colloque de Varsovie, juillet 1971.
Vol. 1-3. Co-edition IAHS-Unesco- WMO / Cogdition AISH-Unesco-OMM.
16. Design of water resoyrces projects with inadequate data: Proceedings of the Madrid Sym-
posium, June 1973 1 Elaboration des projets d’utilisation des resources en eau sans données
suffisantes : Actes du colloque de Madrid, juin 1973. Vol. 1-3. Co-edition U n e s c o - W M O -
I A H S / Coédition Unesco-O M M - A I S I I .
17. Methods for water balance computations.A n international guide for research and practice.
Published by Unesco.
18. Hydrological effects of urbanization.R eport of the Sub-groupo n the Effects of Urbanization
on the Hydrological Environment. Published by Unesco.
Published by
The Unesco Press
Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
Printed by La Néogravure, Paris
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the publishers concerning
the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities, or concerning the frontiers
of any country or territory.
ISBN 92-3-101223-1
0 Unesco 1974 .
Printed in France
Preface
The International Hydrological Decade (IHD) 1965-74 was launched by the General Confer-
ence of Unesco at its thirteenth session to promote international co-operation in research
and studies and the training of specialists and technicians in scientific hydrology. Its
purpose is to enable all countries to make a fuller assessment of their water resources and
a more rational use of them as man's demands for water constantly increase in face of devel-
opments in population, industry and agriculture. In 1974, National Committees for the Decade
had been formed in 108 of Unesco's 131 Member States to carry out national activities within
the programme of the Decade. The implementation of the programme is supervised by a Co-
ordinating Council, composed of thirty Member States selected by the General Conference of
Unesco, which studies proposals for developments of the programme, recommends projects of
interest to all or a large number of countries, assists in the development of national and
regional projects and co-ordinates international co-operation.
Promotion of collaboration in developing hydrological research techniques, diffusing
hydrological data and planning hydrological installations is a major feature of the programme
of the IHD which encompasses all aspects of hydrological studies and research. Hydrological
investigations are encouraged at the national, regional and international level to strengthen
and to improve the use of natural resources from a local and a global perspective. The prog-
ramme provides a means for countries well advanced in hydrological research to exchange sci-
entific views and for developing countries to benefit from this exchange of information in
elaborating research projects and in implementing recent developments in the planning of
hydrological installations.
As part of Unesco's contribution to the achievement of the objectives of the IHD the
General Conference authorized the Director-General to collect, exchange and disseminate info-
rmation concerning research on scientific hydrology and to facilitate contacts between res-
earch workers in this field. To this end Unesco initiated two series of publications; Studies
and Reports in Hydrology and Technical Papers-in Hydrology.
The Studies and Reports in Hydrology series, in which the present volume is published,
is aimed at recording data collected and the main results of hydrological studies undertaken
within the framework of the Decade, as well as providing information on research techniques.
Also included in the series are proceedings of symposia. Thus, the series comprises the
compilation of data, discussions of hydrological research techniques and findings, and guid-
ance material for future scientific investigations. It is hoped that the volumes will furn-
ish material of both practical and theoretical interest to hydrologists and governments
participating in the IHD and respond to the needs of technicians and scientists concerned
with problems of water in all countries.
Contents
Foreword
PART I INTERNATIONAL SUMMARY
1 Introduction 13
2 Summary of findings 16
3 Research and development 29
4 References
37
PART II CASE STUDIES OF HYDROLOGICAL EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION IN
SELECTED COUNTRIES
1 Federal Republic of Germany 45
2 The Netherlands 69
3 Sweden 95
4 United States of America 11 3
5 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 137
PART III ILLUSTRATIVE SPECIAL TOPIC STUDIES
Urban runoff 153
Effects of lignite mining on the urban water cycle in the
Federal Republic of Germany 177
Effects of industrial waste water and sludge on the self-
purification of rivers in the Federal Republic of Germany 193
Some aspects of solid waste disposal in the Federal Republic
of Germany
Waste water dilution in rivers, lakes and reservoirs
Synthetic detergents and water quality in the United Kingdom
The effect of opencast mining on the water balance of an area
Water management in the Netherlands and the effect of
urbanization, particularly runoff, in polder areas
ANNEXES
I Respondents to questionnaire sent by the Secretariat of the
International Hydrological Decade to the National Committee
for the_I.H.D. 273
II Participants in International Workshop on the Effects of
Urbanization, Warsaw, 8-10 November 1973 275
III Terminology 278
Foreword
Among the numerous studies undertaken by the International Hydrological Decade was an invest-
igation initiated in 1965 by the Working Group on the Influence of Man on the Hydrological
Cycle and supported by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) I charged with agricult-
ural and urbanization aspects of the subject. The Coordinating Council in 1970 decided to
form a Sub-group on the Effects of Urbanization on the Hydxological Environment, supported
by Unesco, to assist the Working Group and :o investigate more intensively industrial and
urbanization aspects.
The Sub-group met in three sessions, 28-3C dune 1971, 2-5 May 1972 and 12-13 November
1973. Members were:
Professor S Inokuti* (Japan)
Dr V V Kuprianov* (USSR)
Professor G Lindh (Sweden)
Mr M B McPherson (USA), Chairman
Mr T Waldmeyer (UK)
Mr R Zayc, 1971-1972; and Dr H Massing, 1972-1973 (Federal Republic of Germany)
Ir. F C Zuidema* (Netherlands)
The Sub-group was assisted Gy Mr J Jacquet (France), who represented the IHD Working
Group on Representative and Experimental Basins. Mr N A Bochin of Unesco/IHD served as
Technical Secretary of the Sub-group through its first two sessions, and was succeeded by
Mr F H Verhoog in that capacity.
The Sub-group provided the IHD Coordinating Council with a Summary Statement on the Hyd-
rological Effects of Urbanization in 1971, assisted the Working Group on the Influence of Man
on the Hydrological Cycle on the part of its 1972 report dealing with urbanization through
Ir. F C Zuidema, and prepared the report which follows.
In 1972 the IHD Secretariat circulated to all national committees for the IHD, a quest-
ionnaire on research and development needs. Responses are summarized later in this report.
Respondents, identified in Annex I, were among the participants at an International Workshop
on the Hydrological Effects of Urbanization held in Warsaw, Poland, 8-10 November 1973,
Sponsored by the Polish Academy of Sciences , U.S. National Science Foundation, Unesco/IHD,
and the American Society of Civil Engineers. A draft of Part I of this report, 'Internation-
al Summary', was reviewed at the Workshop and the many invaluable observations and suggest-
ions made by participants have been taken into account in the following report. Workshop
participants are identified in Annex II. Annex III contains definitions of terminology used
throughout this report.
Part II of the report contains 'Case Studies' for Sub-group members' countries and
Part III is a group of 'Illustrative Special Topic Studies' prepared by individual members
and associates from their countries.
This report is a result of the wise decision of the IHD Coordinating Council to give a
greater attention than originally planned to the effects of urbanization. With the rapid
growth of urban areas and associated industrialization around the world, present and proj-
ected, this attention is particularly appropriate. One of the major findings of this report
is that the field of urban hydrology is almost devoid of modem research investment and there
has been relatively little study to date of the effect of urban man upon natural hydrologic-
al conditions, in spite of the significant economic and environmental importance of urban
settlements in nearly every nation. It is earnestly hoped that this report may inspire more
extensive research and development in individual countries and the formulation of improved
mechanisms for international cooperation on research subjects of widespread general interest.
While only relatively few nations were represented by the Sub-group, as augmented by
questionnaire respondents, so many similarities were found in problems and effects that it
is concluded that the findings of this report are more universally representative than the
small sample of nations involved would suggest.
* Members also of the FAO/IHD Working Group on the Influence of Man on the Hydrological
Cycle.
Part I
International summary
by the
IHD/Unesco Sub-Group on the Effects of
Urbanization on the Hydrological Environment
as revised by the
International Workshop on the Hydrological
Effect of Urbanization, Warsaw, 8-10 November 1973
and as completed by the Sub-Group in Warsaw
12-13 November 1973
CONTENTS
1-1 Iritroduction
13
1-1.1 Purpose and scope
1-1.2 Urbanization
1-1.3 Environmental effects
1-1.4 Urban hydrology
1-1.5 Urban hydrological research and development
1-2 Summary of findings i6
1-2.1 Urban hydrological system
1-2 - 2 Urbanization indices
1-2.3 Climatic effects
1-2.4 Changes in surface and groundwater flows
1-2.5 Water supply and water conservation
1-2.6 Water quality and pollution effects
1-2.7 Other hydrological implications
1-2.8 Conclusions
1-3 Research and development 29
1-3.1 General status, conclusions and recommendations
1-3.2 Current activities
1-3.3 Inquiry on research needs
1-3.4 Major research and development needs
1-3.5 International co-operation
1-3.6 Recommendations for international action
1-4 References 3
7
I
Introduction
I- 1 INTRODUCTION
1-1.1 Purpose and scope
The objectives of this report are to describe the effects of urbanization together with its
environmental impacts on the hydrological cycle aqd to recommend research needed by the
managers of all types of water systems to minimize the environmental stresses. This report
is primarily directed to researchers in hydrology. and a special summary is directed to wat-
er managers.
Man's impact on the hydrological regime is, on the whole, nowhere more intensive than
in urban areas. The effects of urbanization on the human environment transcend by far the
considerations of the hydrological cycle. Expected massive increases in urbanization over
the next several decades clearly suggest that present problems will probably be alarmingly
compounded. Although water is a necessity, an economic reality, an amenity, and an aesthetic
component in urban settlements, research on urban water resources has lagged behind large
catchment research in nearly every nation. Needed research is complex and will take consid-
erable time , with much larger financial commitment than previously encountered.
Satisfactory assessment of contemporary hydrological effects is thwarted by a dearth of
suitable information. Therefore, it has been necessary to use indirect means in this report
to define principal effects and to identify necessary research.
While surveys of scores of nations would surely have been desirable and appropriate, this
was simply not feasible. As an expedient, extensive case studies were made for a few count-
ries, to highlight both similarities and pronounced differences, complemented by supplement-
ary information from other countries, and a canvass was made of a much larger sample of
nations to determine relevant current research anã to identify outstanding research needs.
An advantage of the case study approach is that inherent interrelations can be taken in-
to account. The case studies reported in Part II are from economically and technologically
advancea countries, and hence the hydrological effects identified here have been experienced
in countries of that type. However, because most of the developing nations appear to be
moving in the same direction, the observations offered may be regarded as precursors of
occurrences that may be expected sooner or later almost everywhere. The findings from the
selected case studies are summarized in the next chapter. It is hoped that they will give
impetus to case studies in developing nations and that such case studies will focus upon the
special needs and interests of such nations.
Part III explores in detail, via state-of-the-art studies, some of the most important
topics in urban hydrology, with the purpose of indicating what has been accomplished and
documenting justification for much of the more urgently needed research and development
recommended in this report. Some of the findings from these special studies are incorporated
in the next chapter.
It is important to note that this report largely pxovides information and does not
include an analysis of existing international publications.
Terminology used in this report is defined in Annex III of Part I.
1-1.2 Urbanization
'The movement of people from rural to urban areas tends to proceed concomitantly with the
mechanization of agriculture. The pressure of the surplus population, the extension of
employment in industry, and better education, medical facilities, and culture in the cities
have led to a growing migration to the urban and industrialized areas in developing and
developed countries alike. It has coincided with an unprecedented increase in world popu-
lation , thus putting an almost insuperable burden on metropolitan areas.
'Although both rural and urban areas suffer because of this rapid change (especially in
Africa, Asia and Latin America) , the main problem is urban. .. . . .- .' (WHO Expert Committee,
1965a)-
Industrialization is included in urbanization because the latter can be reqarded as
human activities involving change in land occupancy and use resulting from the conversion
of rural lands to industrial uses and to urban, suburban and industxial communities. Also,
there are instances where the effects of water pollution from large-scale mining operations
are comparable to those from industries. Urban areas affect, and are affected by, such
sometimes distant human activities. Among the obvious effects are increased population
13