Table Of ContentHydrologic Measurements
with Flexible Liners and
Other Applications
This book provides hydrologists the information needed for the characterization of
contaminated subsurface hydrologic sites. It explains how to seal boreholes, map con-
taminant distribution in a formation, map the flow zones, and measure the hydraulic
head distribution using a single flexible liner. Results of the measurement methods
provided demonstrate the reality and reliability of the unique FLUTe techniques.
These measurements help to predict contaminant migration and aid in the design
of a groundwater remedy. The limitations of several methods are provided to allow
an intelligent choice of methods and a well-informed selection of devices among
the alternative methods. The mechanics of flexible liner systems are explained with
examples of applications beyond the hydrologic measurements such as relining of
piping.
Features include:
• The first book on a modern technology that is replacing traditional technol-
ogy globally
• Written by the inventor of the FLUTe technology with 25 years’ experience
with successful applications
• Describes FLUTe technology in detail, including the theory behind the
tools, how to use the tools, and the mathematics used to interpret the data
generated by the tools
• Provides step-by-step explanations of how to conduct fieldwork and how to
analyze the data gathered
• Minimizes reliance on mathematical explanations and uses illustrations
and examples that allow readers to understand the technology
This book is of interest to environmental professionals, mine operators, petroleum engi-
neers, geophysicists who use these methods or are considering using these methods for
remediation of groundwater contamination, academics, students, and regulators.
Hydrologic Measurements
with Flexible Liners and
Other Applications
Carl Keller
First edition published 2023
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
©2023 Carl E. Keller
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and pub-
lisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
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ISBN: 978-1-032-21262-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-21427-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-26837-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003268376
Typeset in Times
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Dedicated to my wife Lisa V. and our children,
Craig, Julia, Matt, Keith, and Buster who tolerated
my distraction of this effort over many years.
Contents
Foreword (by Joe Rossabi) .....................................................................................xvii
Preface.....................................................................................................................xix
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................xxiii
Author ....................................................................................................................xxv
List of Abbreviations............................................................................................xxvii
Chapter 1 Introduction/Purpose ...........................................................................1
Chapter 2 Brief History of Flexible Liner Underground Technologies
(FLUTe) Methods .................................................................................3
Chapter 3 The Mechanics of Flexible Liners ........................................................7
3.1 The Flexible Liner Characteristics ............................................7
3.2 The Eversion of a Flexible Liner ...............................................8
3.2.1 The Towing Force.........................................................8
3.2.2 Drag (Friction Effects) .................................................9
3.2.3 Eversion into a Borehole.............................................10
3.2.4 Other Factors Influential on the Liner
Propagation .................................................................12
3.2.4.1 Hole/Liner Diameter ...................................12
3.2.4.2 Wet Film Adhesion .....................................12
3.2.4.3 The Minimum Tension ...............................13
3.2.4.4 The Difference between the Eversion
and the Inversion of the Liner .....................13
3.2.4.5 The Air Balloon Drag and the Air Vent .....15
3.2.4.6 Effect of Breakouts on Liner Eversion .......17
3.2.4.7 The Impermeable Borehole Installations .......17
3.2.5 Stretch of the Liner .....................................................19
3.3 The Liner Removal Methods ...................................................20
3.3.1 The Normal Inversion from a Permeable Borehole .......20
3.3.2 The Pump and Drag Removal ....................................21
3.3.3 The Impermeable Borehole Removal .........................22
3.4 The Liner Seal .........................................................................23
3.4.1 Interior View of the Sealing Liner .............................23
3.4.2 The Highest Head Measurement Method ..................24
3.4.3 Artesian Conditions ....................................................26
3.4.4 Liner Seal Comparison with Packers .........................29
3.5 Liner Installation Devices .......................................................30
3.5.1 Air Pressure Canisters ................................................30
vii
viii Contents
3.5.2 Hose Canisters ............................................................34
3.5.3 Gravity-Driven Installations .......................................35
3.5.4 Magic Gland ...............................................................35
3.5.5 The Drop-in-Place Liner Installation .........................36
3.5.6 The Bulbous Wellhead for Artesian Installations ......37
3.5.7 Mud-Filled Liners ......................................................37
3.5.7.1 Purpose of Mud Fill ....................................37
3.5.7.2 An Example of the Mud Pressure
Calculation ..................................................40
3.5.7.3 In Summary, How the Heavy Mud
Is Used ........................................................41
Chapter 4 Chemistry of the Liners .....................................................................43
4.1 Arsenic.....................................................................................43
4.2 Toluene.....................................................................................43
4.3 1,4-Dioxane .............................................................................44
4.4 Polyfluoronated Alkyl Substances (PFAS) ..............................44
4.5 N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) .........................................45
Chapter 5 Kinds of Blank Liners ........................................................................47
5.1 Different Diameters .................................................................47
5.2 Fabrics .....................................................................................48
5.2.1 Nylon Liners ...............................................................48
5.2.2 Polyester Liners ..........................................................48
5.2.3 Silicon Rubber Liners .................................................48
5.2.4 Transparent Liners and Geophysical Logging ...........48
5.2.5 Different Fabric Weight Liners ..................................52
5.2.6 Tubular Plastic Film Liners ........................................53
5.3 Carrier Liners for Coverings ...................................................53
5.4 Lay Flat Hose Liners ...............................................................54
Chapter 6 Novel Applications of Blank Liners ...................................................55
6.1 Surface Extensions ..................................................................55
6.2 Eversions on or under Water ....................................................55
6.3 Vertical Upward Unsupported Extensions ..............................55
6.4 Eversions through Crooked Piping Systems ............................56
6.5 Lining Boreholes to Prevent Grout Loss or Grout
Shrinkage Outside of a Casing ................................................57
Chapter 7 General Advantages of Flexible Blank Liners ...................................61
Contents ix
Chapter 8 Hazards to the Liner and Precautions ................................................63
Chapter 9 Special Devices Designed for Use with Liners ..................................65
9.1 Green Machine ........................................................................65
9.2 Linear Capstan ........................................................................67
9.2.1 Background ................................................................67
9.2.2 The Linear Capstan Design ........................................69
9.3 T Profiler ..................................................................................70
9.4 Braking Devices of Several Kinds ..........................................71
9.5 The Air-Coupled Water-Level Meter Systems ........................71
9.5.1 The ACT (Air-Coupled Transducer) ..........................71
9.5.1.1 ACT Purpose ..............................................71
9.5.1.2 Background/Comparisons ..........................71
9.5.1.3 The ACT Design and Theory .....................73
9.5.1.4 The Range of Pressure Changes for the
ACT Transducers ........................................76
9.5.1.5 The Temperature Effect ..............................76
9.5.1.6 First Result of the ACT Measurement ........77
9.5.1.7 The Field Measurements .............................78
9.5.1.8 Input Data and Apparatus ...........................79
9.5.1.9 Usual Applications of the ACT System ......81
9.5.1.10 Resolution of the ACT Method ...................82
9.5.1.11 Barometric Corrections ..............................83
9.5.1.12 How Is the Raw Data Used? .......................83
9.5.1.13 Advantages and Limitations of the
Method ........................................................84
9.5.2 The Vacuum Water-Level Meter (VWLM) ...............85
9.5.3 The Air-Coupled Water-Level Meter (ACWLM) ......86
9.6 Eversion/Inversion AIDS ........................................................87
Chapter 10 Theory and Application of FLUTe Liner Methods ............................89
10.1 Blank Sealing Liners ...............................................................89
10.1.1 Installation of a Blank Liner ......................................90
10.1.2 Transparent Blank Liners ...........................................91
10.1.3 Measurements by Others Using FLUTe Flexible
Liners ..........................................................................91
10.2 FLUTe Blank Liners with Special Coverings .........................91
10.2.1 The NAPL FLUTe ......................................................91
10.2.1.1 History of NAPL FLUTe Development ..........91
10.2.1.2 How the NAPL FLUTe Is Installed in
Direct Push Rods ........................................92
