Hydroclimatic and Landscape Controls Over Mudboil Formation in the Canadian High Arctic

117 Pages·2014·4.75 MB·English

by  Jean Holloway

HYDROCLIMATIC AND LANDSCAPE CONTROLS OVER MUDBOIL
FORMATION IN THE CANADIAN HIGH ARCTIC

by

Jean Elizabeth Holloway

A thesis submitted to the Department of Geography
In conformity with the requirements for
the degree of Master of Science

Queen’s University
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
(May, 2014)

Copyright ©Jean Elizabeth Holloway, 2014
Abstract
This study aimed to gain an understanding of changing active layer dynamics in the High Arctic,
specifically in terms of understanding the spatial distribution of mudboils to identify climatic and
landscape controls, and active layer processes driving their formation. Systematic mapping of mudboils
and sediment and water sampling was undertaken at the Cape Bounty Arctic Watershed Observatory
(CBAWO), Melville Island, Nunavut in 2012 and 2013. Based on borehole stratigraphic profiles taken
at CBAWO, three primary soil units were determined: mudboils at surface; overburden (soil) material;
and a grey, fine-grained layer at approximately 80cm depth. These soil classes were used for
comparison to gain an understanding of the properties and origins of the mudboil materials. Results
indicate that these features only occur late in the melt season during exceptionally warm years (2007,
2011, and 2012) and in some cases closely follow major rainfall events. High-resolution satellite
imagery was analyzed to determine landscape controls over mudboil formation. Notably, mudboils were
significantly associated with bare soil and polar semi-desert vegetation settings, corresponding to
increased active layer depth and rate of thaw when compared to more vegetated areas. Further, localized
occurrence of mudboils appears to be related to differential soil moisture retention and spatially
heterogeneous soil water pressurization due to thaw into the ice-rich transient layer in warm years. We
hypothesize that the locally drier locations develop soil ped structures that contribute to diapir
development and mud ejection when seasonal melt and hydraulic conditions pressurize soil water.
Geotechnical and geochemical analysis of soil samples indicates that mudboils at surface do not
significantly differ in terms of composition and physical properties from the undisturbed overburden
material. This is consistent with a fine-grained slurry likely being generated in situ from a parent bed
and subsequently ejected to surface. This research provides insights into the processes and landscape
controls over mudboil formation to aid in understanding localized soil water response to deep summer
thaw, with implications for surface water quality and predictions and potential mitigation of permafrost-
related degradation and disturbance.
ii
Co-Authorship
Field research at the Cape Bounty Arctic Watershed Observatory (CBAWO) in 2012 and 2013
was directed by Dr. Scott Lamoureux. The author conducted field measurements and sample collection
in 2012 and 2013, and performed all laboratory analysis for geotechnical, geochemical, mineralogical
data. Additional data collection at CBAWO from 2003 to present was undertaken by Dr. Scott
Lamoureux and Dr. Melissa Lafrenière, as well as various researchers. The author wrote all chapters,
with discussion and editorial input from Dr. Scott Lamoureux, Dr. Melissa Lafrenière, and Dr. Scott
Montross (Exxon-Mobil).

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Acknowledgements
First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Scott Lamoureux. You’ve given me
the wonderful gift of the ability to travel to the High Arctic and walk where no one has before, as well
as made this entire project possible. It was great being the two tallest things on the tundra together, and
I’m glad I could mostly keep up with your long strides. I hope to one day possess the same enthusiasm
for arctic research and for life.
Second, I would like to recognize the students and researchers that I spent the summers working
with at CBAWO. Keeping me sane during the months of isolation wasn’t enough; you managed to
make it fun! To everyone I’ve shared a lab, an office, or a laugh with over the past two years, you have
my most sincere appreciation and respect.
A very special acknowledgement goes out to my family and friends, specifically for putting up
with me talking about nothing but research for the past six months. To my mother, Jamie, thank you for
the support and the encouragement, even if you didn’t understand a word I was saying. I could not have
done it without you. To my sister, Tracy, you have been my rock and best friend this year, and always.
And finally, to my father, Arthur. After many edits, and countless conversations, you are still as excited
as ever about what I am studying and where I am headed in my academic life. You are my role model,
and I hope to one day be as passionate as you.
This research would not have been possible without financial and logistical support from
ArcticNet, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, the Polar Continental Shelf
Program, the Northern Scientific Training Program, and Queen’s University.
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Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ ii
Co-Authorship ................................................................................................................................ iii
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ vii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ viii
List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 2 Literature Review ............................................................................................................ 3
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 3
2.2 Permafrost .............................................................................................................................. 3
2.3 Active Layer Processes .......................................................................................................... 4
2.3.1 Active Layer Thaw ......................................................................................................... 5
2.3.2 Soil Moisture ................................................................................................................. 10
2.3.3 Infiltration ..................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.4 Freeze-Back Period ....................................................................................................... 14
2.3.5 Ground Ice .................................................................................................................... 16
2.3.6 Transient Layer Formation............................................................................................ 18
2.4 Permafrost Affected Soils .................................................................................................... 20
2.4.1 Properties of Permafrost Affected Soils ........................................................................ 20
2.5 Mudboils .............................................................................................................................. 23
2.5.1 Mudboils in the Arctic .................................................................................................. 24
2.5.2 Formation of Arctic Mudboils ...................................................................................... 25
2.5.3 Physical Properties of Mudboils ................................................................................... 26
2.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 3 Hydroclimatic and Landscape Controls over Mudboil Formation in the Canadian High
Arctic ............................................................................................................................................. 29
3.1 Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 29
3.2 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 30
3.3 Study Site ............................................................................................................................. 31
3.4 Methods ............................................................................................................................... 34
3.4.1 Field Methods: Mapping, Sampling, and Piezometer Installation ................................ 34
3.4.2 Climate Data ................................................................................................................. 35
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3.4.3 Satellite Data Sources and Image Rectification ............................................................ 35
3.4.4 Terrain Analysis ............................................................................................................ 37
3.4.5 Geotechnical Analysis .................................................................................................. 38
3.4.6 Soil Geochemistry ......................................................................................................... 42
3.5 Results .................................................................................................................................. 42
3.5.1 Climate .......................................................................................................................... 42
3.5.2 Landscape and Terrain Analysis ................................................................................... 45
3.5.3 Localized Patterns in Mudboil Formation .................................................................... 49
3.5.4 Active Layer Development ........................................................................................... 52
3.5.5 Geotechnical Analysis .................................................................................................. 54
3.5.6 Geochemical Analysis .................................................................................................. 58
3.5.7 Hydraulic Investigation ................................................................................................. 60
3.6 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 62
3.6.1 Climatic Conditions Affecting Mudboil Formation ...................................................... 62
3.6.2 Landscape Patterns in Mudboil Formation ................................................................... 64
3.6.3 Soil Properties, Active Layer Dynamics, and Mudboil Processes ................................ 67
3.6.4 Terminology and Literature Surrounding Mudboils ..................................................... 70
3.7 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 72
Chapter 4 Conclusions and Future Work ....................................................................................... 73
References ...................................................................................................................................... 75
Appendix A Gas Sampling ........................................................................................................... 86
Appendix B Borehole Logs .......................................................................................................... 89
Appendix C CBAWO Grain Size Analysis ................................................................................... 99
Appendix D Mudboil Investigation at Secondary Sites ............................................................... 100
Appendix E ICP-MS Data .......................................................................................................... 102
Appendix F TOA Radiance and Spectral Reflectance Calculations ........................................... 104
Appendix G Inputs for Terrain Analysis ..................................................................................... 107
Appendix H Sampling Locations ................................................................................................ 108

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List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Soil temperatures in two vegetation settings at Resolute Bay, Nunavut. ...................... 7
Figure 2.2: Seasonal change in water content for the active layer and top of permafrost ............. 12
Figure 2.3: Classification of cryostructures .................................................................................. 18
Figure 2.4: Total soluble cation concentrations and gravimetric moisture content for the active
layer and near-surface permafrost .................................................................................................. 19
Figure 2.5: Cross section of the morphology of a mudboil .......................................................... 24
Figure 2.6: Mudboils ejecting through a diapir at surface and flowing downslope . ..................... 25
Figure 2.7: Morphology of a system of mudboils .......................................................................... 27
Figure 3.1: Photographs depicting mudboils observed at CBAWO, Melville Island, Nunavut .... 31
Figure 3.2: Cape Bounty Arctic Watershed Observatory (CBAWO) study site ............................ 33
Figure 3.3: USCS Plasticity Chart ................................................................................................ 39
Figure 3.4: USDA Soil Textural Triangle ...................................................................................... 41
Figure 3.5: Climate data at CBAWO ............................................................................................. 44
Figure 3.6: Vegetation classification and 10m contour interval for CBAWO ............................... 46
Figure 3.7: Histograms for terrain characteristics associated with mudboils ................................ 48
Figure 3.8: High-resolution panchromatic images for mudboils at Cluster B from 2009, 2010, July
11, 2012, and July 15, 2012 ........................................................................................................... 50
Figure 3.9: Histograms of reflectance values of images at mudboil locations .............................. 51
Figure 3.10: Randomized samples to investigate areas of brighter and darker reflectance in terms
of soil moisture at 7cm depth, vegetation cover, and active layer depth. ...................................... 52
Figure 3.11: Temperatures at 25cm depth for different vegetation settings . ................................ 53
Figure 3.12: Grain size of the three sample classifications ............................................................ 55
Figure 3.13: Plasticity chart for the three classifications . ............................................................. 57
Figure 3.14: Coordinates for the first two principal components of the elemental abundances of
soil samples .................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 3.15: Map of CBAWO depicting locations of boreholes and presence or absence of
pressurized fluid ............................................................................................................................. 61
Figure 3.16: Surface morphology of mudboils at Cluster A and Cluster B . ................................. 64
Figure 3.17: Schematic displaying process differences between mud hummocks and mudboils . 71

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List of Tables
Table 3.1: Details of the high resolution satellite images and data from the registration. ............. 36
Table 3.2: Results for statistical tests performed on various terrain characteristics at CBAWO... 47
Table 3.3: Grain size distributions for samples at CBAWO. ......................................................... 56
Table 3.4: Clay minerals present in samples.................................................................................. 58
Table 3.5: Percentage of variance represented by the first ten principal components of the soil
geochemical data. ........................................................................................................................... 59

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List of Abbreviations
ALD Active Layer Detachment
asl Above Sea Level
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
ASU Analytical Services Unit
BH Borehole
CALM Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring
CBAWO Cape Bounty Arctic Watershed Observatory
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DN Digital Number
DOS Dark Object Subtraction
GCP Ground Control Point
ICP-MS Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
LL Liquid Limit
M Mean
PCA Principal Components Analysis
PI Plasticity Index
PL Plastic Limit
RMS Root Mean Square
SD Standard Deviation
TOA Top of Atmosphere
TMS Thawed Mud Substrate
TPI Topographic Position Index
XRD X-ray Diffraction

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Chapter 1
Introduction
Extensive documentation in recent literature has identified the Arctic as being highly sensitive
to climatic changes, warming at twice the rate of other regions (ACIA, 2005; IPCC, 2013). Higher
temperatures will lengthen the summer thaw season, increase active layer thickness, and increase the
frequency and magnitude of summer rainfall. More specifically, unusually warm conditions during
recent years in the Canadian High Arctic have led to changes in the properties of the seasonal active
layer and the uppermost permafrost (Kokelj, 2002; ACIA, 2005; Jorgenson, et al, 2006; Isaksen, et al,
2007). Thick active layer formation during exceptionally warm years results in more frequent thaw of
the ice-rich transient layer (Shur et al., 2005). This addition of moisture, as well as infiltration from late
season precipitation, results in high pore water pressures and the subsequent expulsion of pressurized
sediment slurries to the surface, forming flows and local stratoform deposits called mudboils.
The processes surrounding the spatial distribution of these features are not well understood, but
it is apparent that they represent a locally potentially important source of sediment, solutes, nutrients,
and gases to the ecosystem, sourced from materials that have likely been buried at depth likely for long
periods of time. Further, these mudboils have been recently observed elsewhere across the High Arctic
(e.g., Lewkowicz, 2007) in areas composed of different bedrock and surficial sediments. A better
understanding of the spatial distribution of these processes is needed, particularly because these features
are often associated with slope failures and other forms of permafrost slope disturbance (Lewkowicz,
2007).
This research aims to provide a systematic investigation of the spatial distribution of mudboils,
to identify climatic and landscape controls, and active layer dynamics driving their formation. The goals
1